Figures ........................................................ xi
Acknowledgments .............................................. xvii
Introduction .................................................... 1
A Short Background to the History of Chinese Archaeology ........ 2
A Short Theoretical Framework ................................... 3
1 The Geographic and Environmental Background .................. 7
Defining "China" ............................................. 7
The Topography of China ...................................... 9
The Climate of China ........................................ 12
Vegetation and Economic Potential ........................... 15
Ancient Climatic and Geographic Changes and Their Effects ... 17
2 Before Cultivation: Human Origins and the Incipient
Development of Human Culture in China ....................... 19
Archaeological Evidence for Early Human Occupation in
China ....................................................... 19
The Chronological Setting ................................ 20
The Earliest Sites ....................................... 21
Early Paleolithic Sites .................................. 22
Middle and Late Paleolithic Sites ........................ 27
The Study of Hominin Remains and the Origins of Human
Populations in China ........................................ 36
The "Out of Africa" Model ................................ 38
The Origins of Homo Sapiens and Modern Human Population
in China ................................................. 39
Stone Tools and the Spread of Human Culture ................. 40
3 The Transition to Food Production: Variability and
Processes ................................................... 45
What Is Agriculture? ........................................ 46
Hunter-Gatherers vs. Agriculturalists: How Different Are
They? ....................................................... 48
Archaeological Evidence for the Transition to Agriculture
in China .................................................... 49
North China ................................................. 49
Late Pleistocene Sites ................................... 50
Early Holocene Sites ..................................... 54
Central and South China ..................................... 56
Late Pleistocene Sites 56 Early Holocene Sites ........... 58
Are We There Yet? Plant and Animal Domestication during
the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene ..................... 60
Why Agriculture? Models Explaining the Transition to
Agriculture in China ........................................ 61
Climatic Changes and the Transition to Agriculture ....... 62
Social and Economic Strategies and the Transition to
Agriculture .............................................. 64
One Center, Two Centers, Multiple Centers: Geographic
Diversity, Interregional Interaction, and the
Transition to Agriculture ................................ 66
4 The Development of Agriculture and Sedentary Life in North
China ....................................................... 68
The Material Culture of Early Neolithic Societies in North
China ....................................................... 70
Settlement Patterns and Village Organization ............. 70
Domestic Structures ...................................... 75
Cemeteries, Burials, and Religious Structures ............ 79
The Production of Artifacts .............................. 86
The Economic Adaptation of Early Neolithic Societies in
North China ................................................. 90
Domesticated Plants ...................................... 90
Domesticated Animals ..................................... 92
The Economic Base of Early Neolithic Societies ........... 94
The Sociopolitical and Economic Organization of Early
Neolithic Villages in North China ........................... 95
Hierarchy and Social Complexity during the Early Part of
the Early Neolithic Period ............................... 96
The Economic Organization of Villages during the Early
Part of the Early Neolithic .............................. 97
The Emergence of Stratification, Social Complexity, and
Regional Polities during the Late Phases of the Early
Neolithic ................................................... 98
Regional Variability and Interregional Interactions during
the Early Neolithic Period in North China ................... 99
5 The Shift to Agriculture and Sedentism in Central and South
China ...................................................... 103
The Material Culture of Early Neolithic Societies in
Central and South China .................................... 103
Settlement Patterns and Village Organization ............ 103
Domestic Structures ..................................... 106
Cemeteries, Burials, and Religious Structures ........... 108
The Production of Artifacts ................................ 113
The Economic Adaptation of Early Neolithic Societies in
Central and South China .................................... 116
Domesticated Plants ..................................... 116
Domesticated Animals .................................... 118
The Economic Base of Early Neolithic Societies ............. 118
The Sociopolitical and Economic Organization of Early
Neolithic Villages in Central and South China ........... 121
Setdement Hierarchy and Social Complexity ............... 121
Economic Organization, Stratification, and Social
Complexity .............................................. 122
Regional Variation and Interregional Interactions during
the Early Neolithic Period in Central and South China ...... 123
Long-Range Interactions ................................. 124
Explaining the Advent of Agriculture and the Origins of
Social and Economic Change ................................. 125
6 The Emergence and Development of Sociopolitical
Complexity ................................................. 127
The Material Culture of Late Neolithic Societies in China .. 127
Settlement Patterns and Site Structure .................. 127
Domestic and Public Structures .......................... 135
Cemeteries, Burials, and Ritual Activity ................ 139
Craft Production and Technology ......................... 144
Regional Variation and Interregional Interactions
during the Late Neolithic Period ........................ 148
Regional Variation ......................................... 148
Regional and Interregional Interactions ................. 150
The Rise of Economic, Social, and Political Complexity and
Stratification during the Late Neolithic ................... 154
Levels and Forms of Sociopolitical Hierarchy during the
Late Neolithic .......................................... 154
The Road to Stratification: Models for the Development
of Stratification during the Late Neolithic ............. 156
The "Origins of Chinese Civilization" and the Transmission
of Cultural Attributes through Time ........................ 159
7 Stepping into History ...................................... 161
Stepping into History: Are We There Yet (1)? ............... 162
The Collapse (or Not?) of Late Neolithic Society ........... 164
The Archaeology of the Early Second MulenniumBCE ........... 167
The Central Yellow River Basin .......................... 167
Northwest China and the Ordos Region .................... 176
Northeast China ......................................... 178
Other Regions ........................................... 184
The Earliest State in Chinese History: Are We There Yet
(2)? ....................................................... 184
Models of the State and Their Archaeological
Correlates .............................................. 185
The Erlitou State Reexamined ............................ 186
Interregional Interactions during the First Half of the
Second Millennium ВСЕ ...................................... 191
8 The Shang Dynasty: The Emergence of the State in China ..... 194
Stepping into History: Historic, Epigraphic, and
Archaeological Sources for the Study of the Shang .......... 195
The Archaeology of the Shang Polity ........................ 197
Chronology of the Shang ................................. 198
Setdement Patterns and Site Structure ................... 198
City Organization and Public Structures ................. 200
Cemeteries, Burials, and Ritual Activity ................ 205
Craft Production and Technology ......................... 209
The Oracle Bone Inscriptions ............................... 216
Shaman or Technocrats? The Religious Functions and
Leadership Strategies of Shang Kings ....................... 219
The Structure and Evolution of the Shang State ............. 220
The State Economy of the Shang Polity ................... 222
Power, Institution, and Legitimation: A Model of the
Shang State ............................................. 224
The Formation of Chinese Culture during the Shang Period ... 225
9 Regional Variation and Interregional Interactions during
the Bronze Age: "Center and Periphery" or "Interaction
Spheres"? ................................................. 227
The Archaeology of Regions Outside the Shang Political
phere ...................................................... 227
Chronological Issues .................................... 227
The Archaeological Record .................................. 228
Northeast China ......................................... 228
North and Northwest China ............................... 232
The Lower and Central Yangzi River Basin ................ 239
The Sichuan Basin ....................................... 242
Areas to the West and South of the Yangzi River Basin ... 246
Regional Variation and Interregional Interactions .......... 247
Models of Interregional Interaction ..................... 248
Economic Adaptation of Societies in Northeast and Northwest
China ................................................... 250
Economic Exchange and Interregional Interaction ......... 251
Other Types of Exchange and Interregional Interaction ... 254
Effects of Interregional Interactions ................... 256
Long-Range Interactions .................................... 257
Tarim Basin "Mummies" and East-West Contact during the
Bronze Age .............................................. 262
10 The Societies and Cultures of the Zhou Period: Processes of
Globalization and the Genesis of Local Identities .......... 264
Historical Background ...................................... 264
The Zhou Administration and the Fall of the Western Zhou ... 265
The Eastern Zhou: A Multistate System ................... 267
The Archaeology of the Western and Eastern Zhou ............ 269
Settlements and the Development of Cities ............... 269
Public Buildings ........................................ 273
Long Walls .............................................. 276
Ritual Structures and Paraphernalia ..................... 278
Craft Production and Technology ......................... 290
Economic Changes and Their Effects ......................... 296
The Evolution of Coins and a Monetary System ............ 298
Regional Identity and Cross-Regional Integration ........... 300
11 The Son of Heaven and the Creation of a Bureaucratic
Empire ..................................................... 306
Historical Background ...................................... 306
Qin Unification and Collapse ............................ 306
The Founding of the Han Dynasty and the Stabilization of
the Imperial System ..................................... 308
Centralization and Expansion during Centralization and
Expansion during the Reign of Han Wudi ..................... 311
Monuments of Unification: The Archaeology of the Qin
Unification Policies ....................................... 312
Communication and Publicity ............................. 312
Measures of Standardization ............................. 314
The "Great Wall" ........................................ 315
The Burial Complex of the First Emperor ................. 316
Unification, Cultural Integration, and Regional Variation .. 325
Cultural Integration under the Qin and Its Fate during
the Han and Later Periods ............................... 325
Regional Variation and Resistance to the Unified
Culture ................................................. 328
By Way of a Personal Conclusion: The Jade Dragon as an
Emblem of Local and National Identity ...................... 337
Notes ......................................................... 341
References .................................................... 343
Index ......................................................... 361
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