1 Basic Concepts of Measurement Methods ........................ 1
1.1 Introduction ............................................ 1
1.2 General Measurement System .............................. 2
1.3 Experimental Test Plan .................................. 5
1.4 Calibration ............................................ 15
1.5 Standards .............................................. 23
1.6 Presenting Data ........................................ 31
1.7 Summary ................................................ 35
References .................................................. 35
Nomenclature ................................................ 36
Problems .................................................... 36
2 Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Signals ............... 43
2.1 Introduction ........................................... 43
2.2 Input/output Signal Concepts ........................... 43
2.3 Signal Analysis ........................................ 48
2.4 Signal Amplitude and Frequency ......................... 51
2.5 Fourier Transform and the Frequency Spectrum ........... 65
2.6 Summary ................................................ 73
References .................................................. 73
Suggested Reading ........................................... 74
Nomenclature ................................................ 74
Problems .................................................... 74
3 Measurement System Behavior ................................. 81
3.1 Introduction ........................................... 81
3.2 General Model for a Measurement System ................. 81
3.3 Special Cases of the General System Model .............. 85
3.4 Transfer Functions .................................... 108
3.5 Phase Linearity ....................................... 110
3.6 Multiple-Function Inputs .............................. 112
3.7 Coupled Systems ....................................... 114
3.8 Summary ............................................... 116
References ................................................. 116
Nomenclature ............................................... 116
Problems ................................................... 117
4 Probability and Statistics ................................. 123
4.1 Introduction .......................................... 123
4.2 Statistical Measurement Theory ........................ 124
4.3 Describing the Behavior of a Population ............... 131
4.4 Statistics of Finite-Sized Data Sets .................. 135
4.5 Hypothesis Testing .................................... 141
4.6 Chi-squared Distribution .............................. 144
4.7 Regression Analysis ................................... 148
4.8 Data Outlier Detection ................................ 155
4.9 Number of Measurements Required ....................... 156
4.10 Monte Carlo Simulations ............................... 158
4.11 Summary ............................................... 160
References ................................................. 161
Nomenclature ............................................... 162
Problems ................................................... 162
5 Uncertainty Analysis ....................................... 168
5.1 Introduction .......................................... 168
5.2 Measurement Errors .................................... 169
5.3 Design-Stage Uncertainty Analysis ..................... 171
5.4 Identifying Error Sources ............................. 176
5.5 Systematic and Random Errors and Standard
Uncertainties ......................................... 177
5.6 Uncertainty Analysis: Multi-Variable Error
Propagation ........................................... 180
5.7 Advanced-Stage Uncertainty Analysis ................... 187
5.8 Multiple-Measurement Uncertainty Analysis ............. 193
5.9 Correction for Correlated Errors ...................... 205
5.10 Nonsymmetrical Systematic Uncertainty Interval ........ 208
5.11 Summary ............................................... 209
References ................................................. 210
Nomenclature ............................................... 210
Problems ................................................... 211
6 Analog Electrical Devices and Measurements ................. 219
6.1 Introduction .......................................... 219
6.2 Analog Devices: Current Measurements .................. 220
6.3 Analog Devices: Voltage Measurements .................. 224
6.4 Analog Devices: Resistance Measurements ............... 228
6.5 Loading Errors and Impedance Matching ................. 235
6.6 Analog Signal Conditioning: Amplifiers ................ 240
6.7 Analog Signal Conditioning: Special-Purpose Circuits .. 245
6.8 Analog Signal Conditioning: Filters ................... 250
6.9 Grounds, Shielding, and Connecting Wires .............. 261
6.10 Summary ............................................... 264
References ................................................. 264
Nomenclature ............................................... 264
Problems ................................................... 265
7 Sampling, Digital Devices, and Data Acquisition ............ 271
7.1 Introduction .......................................... 271
7.2 Sampling Concepts ..................................... 272
7.3 Digital Devices: Bits and Words ....................... 280
7.4 Transmitting Digital Numbers: High and Low Signals .... 282
7.5 Voltage Measurements .................................. 284
7.6 Data Acquisition Systems .............................. 295
7.7 Data Acquisition System Components .................... 296
7.8 Analog Input-Output Communication ..................... 301
7.9 Digital Input-Output Communication .................... 306
7.10 Digital Image Acquisition and Processing .............. 311
7.11 Summary ............................................... 316
References ................................................. 316
Nomenclature ............................................... 317
Problems ................................................... 317
8 Temperature Measurements ................................... 322
8.1 Introduction .......................................... 322
8.2 Temperature Standards and Definition .................. 323
8.3 Thermometry Based on Thermal Expansion ................ 326
8.4 Electrical Resistance Thermometry ..................... 328
8.5 Thermoelectric Temperature Measurement ................ 342
8.6 Radiative Temperature Measurements .................... 365
8.7 Physical Errors in Temperature Measurement ............ 373
8.8 Summary ............................................... 382
References ................................................. 383
Suggested Reading .......................................... 384
Nomenclature ............................................... 384
Problems ................................................... 385
9 Pressure and Velocity Measurements ......................... 392
9.1 Introduction .......................................... 392
9.2 Pressure Concepts ..................................... 392
9.3 Pressure Reference Instruments ........................ 395
9.4 Pressure Transducers .................................. 403
9.5 Pressure Transducer Calibration ....................... 410
9.6 Pressure Measurements in Moving Fluids ................ 412
9.7 Modeling Pressure - Fluid Systems ..................... 416
9.8 Design and Installation: Transmission Effects ......... 416
9.9 Acoustical Measurements ............................... 421
9.10 Fluid Velocity Measuring Systems ...................... 425
9.11 Summary ............................................... 435
References ................................................. 436
Nomenclature ............................................... 437
Problems ................................................... 438
10 Flow Measurements .......................................... 442
10.1 Introduction .......................................... 442
10.2 Historical Background ................................. 442
10.3 Flow Rate Concepts .................................... 443
10.4 Volume Flow Rate Through Velocity Determination ....... 444
10.5 Pressure Differential Meters .......................... 446
10.6 Insertion Volume Flow Meters .......................... 464
10.7 Mass Flow Meters ...................................... 474
10.8 Flow Meter Calibration and Standards .................. 480
10.9 Estimating Standard Flow Rate ......................... 481
10.10 Summary .............................................. 481
References ................................................. 481
Nomenclature ............................................... 482
Problems ................................................... 483
11 Strain Measurement ......................................... 487
11.1 Introduction .......................................... 487
11.2 Stress and Strain ..................................... 487
11.3 Resistance Strain Gauges .............................. 490
11.4 Strain Gauge Electrical - Circuits .................... 497
11.5 Practical Considerations for Strain Measurement ....... 500
11.6 Apparent Strain and Temperature Compensation .......... 504
11.7 Optical Strain Measuring Techniques ................... 514
11.8 Summary ............................................... 521
References ................................................. 521
Nomenclature ............................................... 522
Problems ................................................... 523
12 Mechatronics: Sensors, Actuators, and Controls ............. 527
12.1 Introduction .......................................... 527
12.2 Sensors ............................................... 527
12.3 Actuators ............................................. 555
12.4 Controls .............................................. 561
12.5 Summary ............................................... 580
References ................................................. 580
Nomenclature ............................................... 580
Problems ................................................... 581
Appendix A Property Data and Conversion Factors .............. 585
Appendix В Laplace Transform Basics .......................... 592
B.l Final Value Theorem ................................... 593
B.2 Laplace Transform Pairs ............................... 593
Reference ..................................................... 593
Appendix (Online Only)
A Guide For Technical Writing
A Guide for Technical Writing References
Glossary ...................................................... 594
Index ......................................................... 603
|
