Foreword ........................................................ v
Preface ....................................................... vii
Acknowledgement ................................................ ix
Chapter 1
Introduction - Energy Fundamental Concepts, Sources and
Utilization
1.1 Introduction ............................................... 1
1.2 Energy Cycle of the Earth .................................. 2
1.3 Scientific Concepts of Energy .............................. 3
1.3.1 Different Forms of Energy ........................... 3
1.3.2 Properties of Energy ................................ 6
1.3.3 Energy Sinks ........................................ 6
1.3.4 Energy Units ........................................ 6
1.4 Classification of Energy Resources ......................... 7
1.4.1 Nonrenewable Energy Sources ......................... 7
1.4.2 Renewable Energy Sources ............................ 8
1.5 Availability of Global Nonrenewable Energy Resources ....... 9
1.6 Trends of Global Energy Usage ............................. 14
1.6.1 Energy Consumption by Energy Type .................. 14
1.6.2 Fuel Wise Usage Nonrenewable Energy Sources
by Various Countries ............................... 15
1.6.3 Energy Consumption by Sector ....................... 16
1.7 Mix of Utilization Energy Resources ....................... 18
1.7.1 Energy Resources and their Utilization - USA ....... 18
1.7.2 Energy Resources and their Utilization - India ..... 19
1.8 Energy Parameters for National Developmental Planning ..... 25
1.8.1 Energy Intensity ................................... 25
1.8.2 Energy/GDP Ratio ................................... 25
1.8.3 Energy Planning .................................... 26
1.8.4 India-Energy - GDP - Elasticity .................... 27
1.9 Environmental Effects of Energy Usage ..................... 28
1.9.1 Climate Change - Greenhouse Gas (C02 Emissions
from Energy Usage .................................. 29
1.10 Renewable Energy Sources and their Importance ............. 31
1.10.1 Environmental Effects of Renewable Energy
Resources .......................................... 34
Questions ................................................. 37
Multiple Choice Questions ................................. 38
References ................................................ 42
Chapter 2 Solar Energy
2.1 Introduction .............................................. 44
2.2 Characteristics of Solar Radiation ........................ 45
2.3 Extra Terrestrial Radiation ............................... 45
2.3.1 Spectral Distribution .............................. 46
2.3.2 The Changing Terrestrial Solar Spectrum ............ 47
2.3.3 Power Density and Solar Constant ................... 47
2.3.4 Solar Constant (So) ................................ 49
2.3.5 Solar Energy Potential ............................. 50
2.4 Solar Radiation Distribution over the Earth's Surface ..... 51
2.4.1 Solar Geometry: Sun-Earth Geometric Relationship ... 51
2.4.2 Angle of Declination ............................... 53
2.4.3 Geographic Distribution of Solar Radiation ......... 55
2.4.4 Solar Energy: Indian Scenario ...................... 57
2.5 Solar Radiation Measurement Instruments ................... 58
2.5.1 Full-Sky Instruments ............................... 58
2.5.2 Eppley Precision Spectral Pyranometer (PSP) ........ 58
2.5.3 Direct Sunlight Instruments ........................ 60
2.5.4 Broadband Detectors ................................ 61
2.6 Solar Energy Technologies ................................. 61
2.6.1 Solar Thermal Power and Its Conversion ............. 62
2.6.2 Flat Plate Collector ............................... 65
2.6.3 Energy Balance Equation and Flat Plate
Collector Efficiency ............................... 70
2.6.4 Testing the Efficiency of a Collector .............. 73
2.6.5 Loss Coefficient of Flat Plate Collectors .......... 73
2.7 Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) Systems ................... 74
2.7.1 Types of Concentrating Collectors .................. 74
2.7.2 Parabolic Dish System .............................. 74
2.7.3 Solar Collectors' Efficiency ....................... 77
2.7.4 Acceptance Angle ................................... 79
2.7.5 Thermodynamic Limits of Concentration (Max
Achievable Temperature) ............................ 79
2.7.6 The Central Power Tower System ..................... 80
2.7.7 The Parabolic Trough System ........................ 82
2.7.8 Tracking CPC and Solar Swing ....................... 83
2.7.9 Tubular Solar Energy Collectors .................... 84
2.7.10 Major Parabolic Trough Collector Power Plants ...... 85
2.8 Solar Energy Storage Methods .............................. 88
2.8.1 Thermal Storage Integrated with CSP ................ 89
2.8.2 Solar Pond ......................................... 89
2.8.3 Battery Storage for Solar Energy ................... 93
2.8.4 Other Solar Energy Storage Solutions ............... 95
2.9 Solar Energy Applications ................................. 95
2.9.1 Solar Water Heating ................................ 95
2.9.2 Solar Distillation ................................ 102
2.9.3 Solar Pumping ..................................... 105
2.9.4 Solar Cooking ..................................... 110
2.9.5 Solar Energy for Heating, Cooling and
Ventilation ....................................... 115
2.10 Solar Thermal Power ...................................... 116
2.10.1 Thermoelectric Technology ......................... 117
2.10.2 Thermionic Technology ............................. 118
2.10.3 Magneto Hydrodynamic (MHD) Technology ............. 120
2.10.4 Alkali-metal Thermoelectric Technology ............ 122
2.11 Photovoltaic Effect ...................................... 123
2.11.1 Photovoltaic Cells ................................ 123
2.11.2 Photovoltaic Materials ............................ 124
2.11.3 How Semiconductor Materials Work in a Solar Cell .. 125
2.11.4 Effect of Light on Silicon ........................ 125
2.11.5 Potential Barrier ................................. 126
2.11.6 The Negative-Carrier (Donor) Dopant ............... 127
2.11.7 The Positive-Carrier (Acceptor) Dopant ............ 128
2.11.8 The Junction ...................................... 129
2.11.9 The Potential Barrier in Action ................... 131
2.11.10 Band Theory for Electron Behavior in Solids ...... 132
2.11.11 Types of Semiconductor Materials ................. 133
2.11.12 Semiconductor Junctions for Solar Cell Devices ... 134
2.11.13 Physical Form of Semiconductor Materials Used
for PV Cells ..................................... 136
2.11.14 Light Absorption by a Semiconductor in a Solar
Cell ............................................. 138
2.11.15 Current in a PV Cell ............................. 138
2.11.16 Efficiency of Solar Photovoltaic Cell ............ 139
2.11.17 Concentrator Cells ............................... 143
2.11.18 Application of Photovoltaics ..................... 143
Questions ................................................ 152
Problem Solving .......................................... 154
References ............................................... 162
Chapter 3 Biomass Energy
3.1 Photosynthesis ........................................... 164
3.2 Biomass and Biomass Energy ............................... 165
3.3 The Potential of Biomass Energy .......................... 166
3.3.1 Biomass Conversion Routes ......................... 167
3.3.2 Classifications of Biomass Conversion
Technologies ...................................... 169
3.4 Biogas ................................................... 174
3.4.1 What is Biogas? ................................... 174
3.4.2 Uses of Biogas .................................... 174
3.4.3 Biogas and the Global Carbon Cycle ................ 176
3.4.1 Biogas Production and Process Microbiology ........ 176
3.4.5 Anaerobic Digestion (AD) .......................... 176
3.4.6 Important Characteristics of Biogas as a Fuel ..... 179
3.4.7 Biogas Plant Technology ........................... 179
3.4.8 Application of Anaerobic Digestion for Municipal
Waste Water Treatment and Biogas Production ....... 191
3.4.9 Storage/Transport of Biogas for Combined Heat
and Power Applications (CHP) ...................... 194
3.5 Biomass Gasification Process ............................. 196
3.5.1 Theory of Gasification ............................ 196
3.5.2 Gasification Mechanism ............................ 197
3.5.3 Producer Gas and Syngas ........................... 198
3.5.4 Air Requirement for the Gasification Process ...... 199
3.5.5 Gasifiers and their Mechanism of Function ......... 199
3.5.6 Properties of Producer Gas ........................ 209
3.5.7 Gasifier Fuel Characteristics ..................... 211
3.5.8 Gasification for Power Generation ................. 215
3.6 Future Biomass Combustion Technologies ................... 216
3.6.1 Biomass Pyrolysis ................................. 216
3.6.2 Biomass Cogeneration .............................. 217
3.7 Energy Recovery from Municipal Solid Waste ............... 219
3.7.1 Basic Techniques of Energy Recovery ............... 219
3.7.2 Parameters Affecting Energy Recovery .............. 220
3.7.3 Assessment of Energy Recovery Potential ........... 221
3.7.4 Technological Options ............................. 222
3.8 Energy Plantation ........................................ 223
3.8.1 Energy Plantation as Global Renewable Energy
Resource .......................................... 223
3.8.2 Social Forestry ................................... 224
3.8.3 Silviculture Energy Farms ......................... 225
3.9 Environmental Impacts of Biomass Energy Systems .......... 225
3.9.1 Environmental Risks and Benefits .................. 225
3.10 Biomass Resource Development in India .................... 227
3.10.1 Biomass Energy Policies and Programs .............. 227
3.10.2 Technological Advancement in Biomass Energy ....... 228
Questions ................................................ 228
References ............................................... 230
Chapter 4 Wind Energy
4.1 Properties of Wind ....................................... 236
4.2 Wind Energy .............................................. 237
4.2.1 Global Potential of Wind Energy ................... 238
4.2.2 Availability of Wind Energy in India .............. 242
4.3 Wind Velocity and Winds Energy ........................... 243
4.3.1 The Wind Resource ................................. 243
4.3.2 Weibull Distribution .............................. 243
4.4 Wind Machine Fundamentals ................................ 245
4.4.1 Principles of Wind Energy Conversion .............. 245
4.4.2 Types of Wind Machines and their Characteristics .. 246
4.4.3 Windmill Performance .............................. 248
4.5 Horizontal and Vertical Axis Wind Mills .................. 248
4.5.1 Design Aspects of Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines
(HAWT) ............................................ 249
4.5.2 Design Aspects of Vertical Axis Wind Turbines
(VAWT) ............................................ 256
4.5.3 Wind Turbine Site Selection ....................... 259
4.5.4 Wind Power vs. Tower Height ....................... 261
4.6 Wind Energy Farms ........................................ 262
4.7 Wind Power Economics ..................................... 263
4.7.1 Cost and Operating Characteristics of Wind Power .. 263
4.7.2 Wind Mill Operation and System Integration
Issues ............................................ 264
4.8 Recent Technology Developments ........................... 265
4.8.1 AC-DC-AC Converters ............................... 265
4.8.2 Hybrid Wind, Battery, and Diesel Systems .......... 266
4.9 Environmental Impacts of Wind Power ...................... 267
Questions ................................................ 268
References ............................................... 269
Chapter 5 Ocean Energy
5.1 Ocean Energy Fundamental Concepts ........................ 271
5.2 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) ................... 272
5.2.1 Principles and Systems ............................ 272
5.2.2 Global Locations with Favorable Ocean Thermal
Gradient for OTEC Systems ......................... 272
5.2.3 Different OTEC Systems for Power Generation ....... 274
5.2.4 Location of OTEC System ........................... 277
5.2.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of OTEC Systems ...... 277
5.2.6 Environmental Impacts of OTEC Systems ............. 277
5.2.7 OTEC Potential in India ........................... 278
5.3 Wave Energy, Conversion Machines, Power Plants based on
Ocean Energy ............................................. 278
5.3.1 Ocean Waves ....................................... 278
5.3.2 Potential of Wave Energy .......................... 279
5.3.3 Estimation of Wave Energy Potential in India ...... 280
5.3.4 Wave Climate ...................................... 280
5.3.5 Wave Energy Calculations .......................... 280
5.3.6 Assessment of Wave Energy and Power ............... 281
5.3.7 Energy and Power Density .......................... 281
5.3.8 Power per Meter of Wave Front ..................... 282
5.3.9 Energy at Varying Depths .......................... 283
5.3.10 Wave Power for Electricity Generation ............. 283
5.4 Economics of Ocean Energy and Power Unit Cost of
Different Technologies ................................... 292
5.5 Tidal Power .............................................. 292
5.5.1 Basic Scientific Concepts of Tides and Tidal
Power ............................................. 292
5.5.2 Tidal Force ....................................... 293
5.5.3 Tidal Energy ...................................... 294
5.6 The Kyoto Protocol and the Relevance of Exploration of
Ocean Energy ............................................. 302
5.7 Ocean Energy Options for Indian economy .................. 303
Questions ................................................ 303
References ............................................... 304
Chapter 6 Geothermal Energy
6.1 Introduction ............................................. 306
6.2 Structure of the Earth's Interior ........................ 306
6.3 Geothermal sites ......................................... 308
6.3.1 Global Geothermal Sites ........................... 310
6.3.2 Geosites in India ................................. 312
6.4 Earthquakes and Volcanoes ................................ 313
6.4.1 Converging Plate Boundaries ....................... 314
6.4.2 Divergence Plate Boundaries ....................... 315
6.4.3 Conservative Plate Boundaries ..................... 315
6.5 Geothermal Resources ..................................... 316
6.5.1 Natural Hydrothermal Reservoirs ................... 317
6.5.2 Geopressured Reservoirs ........................... 317
6.5.3 Hot Dry Rock (HDR) ................................ 318
6.5.4 Ultra Low-grade Systems ........................... 318
6.6 Hot Springs .............................................. 319
6.7 Steam Ejection ........................................... 320
6.7.1 Basic Thermodynamics of Geothermal Processes ...... 320
6.7.2 Geothermal Energy of Dry Rock ..................... 321
6.7.3 Geothermal Energy of Hot Aquifers ................. 324
6.8 The Principle of the Working of Geothermal Plants ........ 327
6.8.1 Power Plant Efficiency ............................ 327
6.8.2 Geothermal Plant Design Considerations ............ 328
6.9 Types of Geothermal Station Schematic Representation ..... 330
6.9.1 Dry-Steam Power Plants ............................ 331
6.9.2 Flash-Steam Power Plants .......................... 331
6.9.3 Binary Power Plants ............................... 333
6.10 Site Selection for Geothermal Power Plants ............... 333
6.11 Advanced Concepts ........................................ 334
6.11.1 Non-Electrical Applications ....................... 334
6.11.2 Geothermal Heat Pumps ............................. 334
6.11.3 Estimated U.S. Geothermal Resources ............... 334
6.11.4 Worldwide Geothermal Capacities ................... 335
6.11.5 Geothermal Efforts in India ....................... 335
6.12 Problems Associated with Geothermal Conversion ........... 336
Questions ................................................ 336
Exercises ................................................ 338
Problem Solving .......................................... 338
References ............................................... 342
Chapter 7 Hydrogen Energy
7.1 Introduction ............................................. 345
7.2 Properties of Hydrogen in Respect of its Use as Source
of Renewable Energy ...................................... 345
7.2.1 Physical Properties ............................... 345
7.2.2 Chemical and Combustion Properties ................ 347
7.3 Sources of Hydrogen ...................................... 351
7.4 Production of Hydrogen ................................... 352
7.4.1 Steam Methane Reforming (SMR) ..................... 354
7.4.2 Electrolysis ...................................... 365
7.4.3 Gasification of Biomass ........................... 368
7.4.4 Nuclear based Hydrogen Production ................. 368
7.5 Storage and Transportation ............................... 368
7.5.1 Storage ........................................... 368
7.5.2 Transportation .................................... 373
7.5.1 Problems with Hydrogen as Fuel .................... 374
7.7 Development of Hydrogen Cartridge ........................ 375
7.8 Economics of Hydrogen Fuel and its Use ................... 376
Questions ................................................ 377
Problem Solving .......................................... 378
References ............................................... 380
Chapter 8 Fuel Cells
8.1 Introduction ............................................. 382
8.2 Principle of Operation of an Acidic Fuel Cell ............ 383
8.2.1 Design of a Typical Fuel Cell ..................... 386
8.2.2 Efficiency and EMF of Fuel Cells .................. 387
8.3 Reusable Cells, Ideal Fuel Cells ......................... 393
8.4 Types of Fuel Cells ...................................... 394
8.4.1 Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC) ......................... 395
8.4.2 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) .................. 397
8.4.3 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC) ................. 399
8.4.4 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) ..................... 401
8.4.5 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFCs) ................ 403
8.5 Comparison Between Acidic and Alkaline Hydrogen-Oxygen
Fuel Cells ............................................... 404
8.6 Conversion of Chemical Energy and Efficiency ............. 405
8.6.1 Part-Load Characteristics ......................... 407
8.6.2 Response Time ..................................... 407
8.6.3 Emissions ......................................... 407
8.7 Esthetics ................................................ 408
8.7.1 Miscellaneous Characteristics ..................... 408
8.8 Fuel Cell Power Plants ................................... 409
8.8.1 Advantages of Fuel Cell Power Plants .............. 410
8.9 Future Potential of Fuel Cells ........................... 414
8.9.1 USA and International Market in Fuel Cells ........ 412
8.9.2 Fuel cell R and D in India ........................ 416
Questions ................................................ 4^
Exercises ................................................ 4^
Problem Solving .......................................... 421
References ............................................... 42^
Chapter 9 Thermoelectric Systems
9.1 Introduction ............................................. 433
9.2 Kelvin Relations ......................................... 433
9.3 Power Generation ......................................... 438
9.3.1 Efficiency and Performance ........................ 440
9.3.2 Typical Values of a Thermoelectric Device
Examples of Thermoelectric Power Generation ....... 443
9.4 Properties of Thermoelectric Materials ................... 446
9.4.1 Figure of Merit ................................... 446
9.4.2 Electrical Conductivity ........................... 447
9.4.3 Seebeck Coefficient ............................... 448
9.4.4 Thermal Conductivity .............................. 448
9.5 Thermoelectric Materials ................................. 449
9.6 Fusion Plasma Generators ................................. 452
Questions ................................................ 453
Exercises ................................................ 454
Problem Solving .......................................... 454
References ............................................... 457
Chapter 10 Nuclear Energy
10.1 Introduction ............................................. 459
10.2 Principles of Nuclear Energy ............................. 459
10.3 Basic Components of Nuclear Reactions .................... 460
10.4 Radioactivity and Decay .................................. 464
10.5 Nuclear Fission and Fusion ............................... 465
10.5.1 Nuclear Fusion .................................... 465
10.5.2 Nuclear Fission ................................... 467
10.6 Nuclear Fuel Consumption and Nuclear Energy Released ..... 470
10.6.1 Nuclear Energy Balance and Thermodynamics ......... 471
10.6.2 Nuclear Power Plant Model ......................... 474
10.6.3 Nuclear Fission Reactors .......................... 477
10.6.1 Nuclear Fuel ...................................... 478
10.6.5 Moderator ......................................... 480
10.6.6 Critical mass ..................................... 481
10.7 Multiplication Factor .................................... 483
10.8 Conversion Ratio of a Reactor ............................ 485
10.9 Neutron Flux in a Nuclear Reactor ........................ 485
10.10 Uranium Enrichment ...................................... 486
10.10.1 Gas Centrifuge Method ............................ 486
10.10.2 Gas Diffusion Method ............................. 487
10.10.3 Thermal Diffusion Method ......................... 488
10.10.4 Laser Excitation Method .......................... 488
10.11 Types of Nuclear Reactors ............................... 488
10.12 Layout of a Nuclear Power Station ....................... 490
10.13 Nuclear Fuel Cycle ...................................... 490
10.14 Radiation Interactions and Dose Units and Definitions ... 492
10.15 Site Selection of a Nuclear Power Plant ................. 494
10.16 Safety Measures in a Nuclear Power Plant ................ 496
10.17 Nuclear Power Plant Cost and Economics .................. 497
10.18 Major Nuclear Power Disasters ........................... 499
10.18.1 Three Mile Island ................................ 499
10.18.2 Chernobyl ........................................ 501
10.18.3 Fukushima Dai-Ichi (Fukushima I) ................. 503
10.18.4 Global Status of Nuclear Power ................... 506
10.18.5 Nuclear Industry in USA .......................... 507
10.18.6 Nuclear Power in India ........................... 510
Questions ................................................ 513
Exercises ................................................ 514
Problem Solving .......................................... 515
References ............................................... 518
Chapter 11 Application of Nanotechnologies for Clean Energy
11.1 Growing Global Energy Demand - Role of Nanotechnologies .. 521
11.1.1 What is Nanotechnology? ........................... 522
11.1.2 Why Develop Nanotechnology for Clean Energy? ...... 522
11.1.1 Nanotechnologies for Clean Energy ................. 523
11.3 Nanotechnology Applications for Clean Energy ............. 524
11.3.1 Energy Generation Process - Photovoltaics, Wind
Energy, Geothermal Energy, Hydro Tidal, Biomass,
Fossil Fuels, Nuclear ............................. 524
11.3.2 Energy Conversion ................................. 528
11.3.3 Energy Distribution: High Voltage Transmission,
Super Conductors, CNT Power Lines, Wireless
Power Transmission, Smart Grids, Heat Transfer .... 530
11.3.4 Energy Storage: Electrical Energy-Batteries,
Super Capacitors, Chemical Energy Hydrogen,
Fuel Reforming/Refining, Fuel Tanks, Thermal
Energy-Phase Change Materials, Adsorptive
Storage ........................................... 531
11.3.5 Energy Usage ...................................... 538
11.4 Environmental, Safety, and Health Risks - Application
of Nanotechnologies ...................................... 538
11.5 Conclusions .............................................. 539
Questions ................................................ 539
References ............................................... 540
Index ......................................................... 543
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