1 The Practice of Bioarchaeology ............................. 1
1.1 Bioarchaeology is Anthropology ............................. 1
1.1.1 Bioarchaeology as Integrative, Engaged, and
Ethical ............................................. 3
1.1.1.1 Goals of Bioarchaeological Research ........ 5
1.2 Methodological and Theoretical Approaches .................. 6
1.2.1 Integrating Human Remains with Archaeological
Context ............................................. 7
1.2.2 Integrating Human Remains with Ethical
Considerations ...................................... 8
1.2.3 Integrating Human Remains with Environment and
Culture ............................................. 9
1.2.3.1 Using a Biocultural Model ................. 10
1.2.3.2 Adapting the Biocultural Model to
Specific Research Questions ............... 12
1.2.4 Integrating Human Remains with Contextual Data ..... 13
1.2.4.1 Case Study: Ancient Arabia ................ 15
1.2.4.2 Case Study: Ancient America ............... 17
1.3 Summary ................................................... 18
References ................................................ 20
2 An Ethos for Bioarchaeologists ............................ 23
2.1 Historical Trends and Missed Opportunities for
Integration and Engagement in the USA ..................... 25
2.1.1 The History of Physical Anthropology ............... 26
2.1.1.1 The Role of Measurement in "Scientific
Racism" ................................... 28
2.1.2 Developing a Biocultural Approach and the Origin
of Modern Physical Anthropology .................... 30
2.2 The Rise of Legislation and Its Effect on Bioarchaeology .. 32
2.2.1 Who Owns the Past? ................................. 34
2.2.2 The Impact of NAGPRA on Bioarchaeology ............. 35
2.2.2.1 Case Study: American Southwest ............ 36
2.2.2.2 Case Study: Columbia Plateau Region ....... 39
2.2.3 NAGPRA and Bioarchaeology Can Coexist .............. 40
2.2.4 Beyond Legislation: Bioarchaeology Outside of the
USA ................................................ 41
2.2.4.1 Case Study: Yaqui People .................. 42
2.3 Indigenous Archaeology .................................... 45
2.4 Summary ................................................... 49
References ................................................ 50
3 Formulating Research Projects Involving Human Remains ..... 57
3.1 Bioarchaeology and Forensic Anthropology: Complementary
Methods but Different Approaches .......................... 58
3.2 The Research Question: Putting Human Remains into
Context ................................................... 60
3.2.1 The Need for Empirical Data ........................ 62
3.2.2 Documenting Patterns and Processes in Life and in
Death .............................................. 64
3.3 Social Theory in Bioarchaeology ........................... 66
3.3.1 Theory: Evolution of Human Behavior ................ 67
3.3.2 Theory: Human Ecology .............................. 69
3.3.3 Theory: Human Body and Identity .................... 70
3.3.4 Theory: Sex and Gender ............................. 72
3.3.5 Theory: Human Violence ............................. 74
3.3.5.1 Massive Trauma ............................ 76
3.3.6 Theory: Inequality ................................. 78
3.3.7 Theory: Colonization and Imperialism ............... 80
3.4 Research Design ........................................... 81
3.5 Summary ................................................... 83
References ................................................ 84
4 Best Practices: Excavation Guidelines and Taphonomic
Considerations ............................................ 93
4.1 Understanding the Origin and Condition of the Human
Remains ................................................... 93
4.2 Levels of Participation ................................... 94
4.2.1 The Role of Bioarchaeologists ...................... 94
4.2.1.1 Bioarchaeologists as Consultants .......... 95
4.2.1.2 Bioarchaeologist as Collaborators ......... 96
4.2.1.3 Bioarchaeologists as Supervisors .......... 97
4.2.2 The Different Roles and their Varying Outcome:
Case Studies ....................................... 97
4.2.2.1 Case Study: CILHI ......................... 97
4.2.2.2 Case Study: Bioarchaeologists as Engaged
Researchers ............................... 98
4.3 Excavation of Human Remains .............................. 100
4.3.1 Locating the Body ................................. 100
4.3.2 Procedures for Removing the Body .................. 101
4.3.2.1 Maintain Detailed Records and
Photograph Everything .................... 101
4.3.2.2 Measure and then Measure Some More ....... 102
4.3.2.3 Case Study: Penasco Blanco ............... 102
4.4 Taphonomy: The History of an Individual and their
Remains After Death ...................................... 105
4.4.1 A Brief History of Taphonomy ...................... 106
4.4.2 Taphonomic Influences to the Bone ................. 107
4.4.2.1 Abiotic Factors .......................... 107
4.4.2.2 Biotic Factors ........................... 108
4.4.3 Human-Caused Taphonomy: Understanding that there
are Cultural Factors that Affect Bone After
Death ............................................. 109
4.4.3.1 Violence ................................. 109
4.4.3.2 Mortuary Practice ........................ 110
4.4.3.3 Field or Laboratory Taphonomy ............ 111
4.5 Summary .................................................. 112
References ............................................... 113
5 The Mortuary Component and Human Remains ................. 117
5.1 Mortuary Archaeology ..................................... 118
5.2 Linking Mortuary Context with Human Remains .............. 120
5.2.1 Best to Worst Case Scenarios ..................... 121
5.3 Mortuary Features ........................................ 123
5.3.1 Interment Type .................................... 124
5.3.1.1 Inhumation: Primary ...................... 125
5.3.1.2 Inhumation: Secondary .................... 125
5.3.1.3 Inhumation: Multiple ..................... 126
5.3.1.4 Cremation ................................ 126
5.3.1.5 Cultural Modification .................... 127
5.3.1.6 Isolated Bones ........................... 127
5.3.2 Bone Concentrations ............................... 129
5.3.2.1 Ossuaries ................................ 129
5.3.2.2 Intentionally Disarticulated
Assemblages .............................. 130
5.3.2.3 Massacres ................................ 130
5.3.3 Position, Orientation, and Dimensions ............. 131
5.3.4 Grave Goods ....................................... 131
5.3.3 Representativeness of the Mortuary Sample:
Biases by Age, Sex, and Status .................... 132
5.3.6 Ritual ............................................ 133
5.3.6.1 Incorporating the Dead into Rituals
and Ceremonies ........................... 134
5.3.6.2 Rituals Involving Manipulation of the
Dead ..................................... 135
5.3.6.3 Animal Graves, Animal Offerings, and
Animal Companions ........................ 136
5.3.7 Spatial and Locational Information ................ 136
5.3.8 Ancestor-Descendant Relationships and
Perspectives ...................................... 137
5.4 Ideology and Death ....................................... 138
5.5 Case Study: La Plata Skeletal Analysis—How to Integrate
the Different Levels of Analysis ......................... 138
5.5.1 The Osteological Findings ......................... 139
5.5.2 The Mortuary Context .............................. 141
5.5.3 Integrating Osteology and Mortuary Analyses,
Ideology, and Culture ............................. 144
5.6 Summary .................................................. 145
References ............................................... 146
6 Bioarchaeology of Individuals: Identity, Social Theory,
and Skeletal Analysis .................................... 151
6.1 Theorizing Skeletal Indicators ........................... 152
6.2 The Individual Body or Body-Self ......................... 154
6.2.1 Shifting Rights and Responsibilities: The
Importance of Estimating Age at Death and Sex
and Gender ........................................ 154
6.2.1.1 Brief Overview of Methods of Age
Estimation and Sex Assignment ............ 155
6.2.2 Kinship's Role in Marriage, Trade, and Warfare:
Assessing Ancestry or Biological Relatedness ...... 156
6.2.2.1 Brief Overview of Methods of Assessing
Ancestry and Biological Relatedness ...... 157
6.3 The Social Body .......................................... 158
6.3.1 Veneration of Loved Ones or Disposal of the
Deviants: The Importance of Mortuary Context ...... 158
6.3.2 Why Isn't Everyone Healthy and Well Fed? What
Nutrition Can Reveal About Inequality ............. 159
6.3.2.1 Stature .................................. 159
6.3.2.2 Dental Health ............................ 160
6.3.2.3 Other Indicators of Nutritional Status ... 161
6.3.3 Inequality and Poor Health: Infection, Morbidity,
and Early Death ................................... 162
6.4 The Political Body or Body Politic ....................... 162
6.4.1 Ancient Occupations: Captives, Warriors, Elites,
and Slaves ........................................ 163
6.4.1.1 Osteoarthritis and Degenerative Joint
Disease .................................. 163
6.4.1.2 Robusticity .............................. 165
6.4.1.3 Entheses ................................. 165
6.4.2 From Domestic Violence to Feuds, Raids, and
Warfare: Recognizing Trauma in the Past ........... 167
6.5 Summary .................................................. 168
References ............................................... 169
7 Bioarchaeology of Populations: Understanding Adaptation
and Resilience ........................................... 173
7.1 Relevance of Population Data ............................. 174
7.1.1 Adaptation of Populations to Stress ............... 176
7.1.2 Chronologies of Pain: Reconstructing Health and
Disease Profiles Over Long Periods of Time ........ 177
7.1.3 Bioarchaeology of Disability and Community Care ... 179
7.2 Paleodemography .......................................... 180
7.2.1 Age at Death and Life Table Analyses ............. 181
7.3 Modeling the Effects of Stress and Change at the
Population Level Using Skeletal Remains .................. 183
7.3.1 Case Study: The People of the Mounds—Status and
Inequality at Cahokia ............................. 184
7.3.2 Case Study: The Pueblo - Hardship and Poor
Health in the American Southwest .................. 186
7.3.3 Case Study: The Calusa - Complex Hunter-
Gatherers of Spanish Florida ...................... 189
7.4 Summary .................................................. 191
References ............................................... 193
8 Special Applications in Bioarchaeology: Taking a Closer
Look ..................................................... 199
8.1 Under the Surfaces of Bone and Teeth ..................... 200
8.1.1 Destruction, Alteration, and Transformation:
Ethical Considerations ............................ 200
8.1.2 Complex and Varied Perspectives of Descent
Communities ....................................... 202
8.2 Synopsis of Select Special Applications in
Bioarchaeology ........................................... 204
8.2.1 Histological and Cellular Analyses ................ 204
8.2.1.1 Cross-Sectional Analysis ................. 204
8.2.2 Molecular Analysis ................................ 205
8.2.2.1 Isotopic and Elemental Analysis .......... 206
8.2.2.2 Genetic Analysis ......................... 208
8.2.3 Photographs and X-Rays ............................ 208
8.3 Summary .................................................. 209
References ............................................... 210
9 Body as Material Culture ................................. 213
9.1 Ritual and Ritualized Behavior ........................... 214
9.1.1 Body Modification and Ornamentation .............. 214
9.1.1.1 Artificial Cranial Deformation ........... 215
9.1.1.2 Other Forms of Body Modification and
Ornamentation ............................ 216
9.2 Ceremonial Warfare, Blood Atonement, and Revenge ......... 217
9.2.1 Ceremonial Warfare ................................ 218
9.2.2 Human Sacrifice ................................... 219
9.2.3 Captivity and Torture ............................. 222
9.2.4 Massacre .......................................... 223
9.2.5 Cannibalism ....................................... 225
9.3 The Body as an Agent in the World ........................ 227
9.3.1 Ancestor Veneration ............................... 227
9.3.2 Trophy Taking ..................................... 232
9.4 The Body as a Symbol and the Power of the Dead: Ethical
Considerations ........................................... 233
9.5 Summary .................................................. 233
References ............................................... 234
10 Relevance, Education, and the Future ..................... 239
10.1 Applied Bioarchaeology: Moving Past the Analysis of the
Bones .................................................... 240
10.1.1 From Global Health and Nutrition to Violence
and Conflict: Understanding the Living via the
Dead .............................................. 240
10.1.2 Ethnobioarchaeology: Understanding the Dead
via the Living .................................... 242
10.2 Teaching Bioarchaeology: The Importance of a Four-Field
Approach and the Need for More Theory .................... 243
10.2.1 A Model for Interdisciplinary Learning ............ 245
10.2.2 Hands-On Learning ................................. 246
10.2.3 A Tool for Teaching Ethics ........................ 247
10.2.4 The Role of Engagement in Bioarchaeology .......... 248
10.3 The Future of Bioarchaeology: The Bioarchaeology of
"Me" ..................................................... 248
10.3.1 There are Jobs in Bioarchaeology .................. 250
10.3.2 Bioarchaeology is Practiced in the United States .. 250
10.4 Summary .................................................. 253
References ............................................... 253
Index ......................................................... 255
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