Preface ...................................................... xvii
Author ........................................................ xix
Chapter 1 Product Design and Development in the Industrial
Enterprise ...................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ............................................... 1
1.2 Feasibility Study and Concept Selection .................... 2
1.2.1 Market Research ..................................... 2
1.2.2 Product Specifications .............................. 2
1.2.3 Concept Generation, Screening, and Selection ........ 3
1.2.4 Economic Analysis ................................... 3
1.2.5 Selecting an Optimum Solution ....................... 4
1.3 System-Level Design ........................................ 8
1.4 Detail Design and Selection of Materials and Processes ..... 9
1.4.1 Configuration (Embodiment) Design ................... 9
1.4.2 Final Detail Design ................................ 10
1.4.3 Design Reviews ..................................... 10
1.5 Testing and Refinement .................................... 10
1.6 Launching the Product ..................................... 11
1.6.1 Project Planning and Scheduling .................... 11
1.6.2 Manufacturing ...................................... 13
1.6.3 Quality Control .................................... 13
1.6.4 Packaging .......................................... 14
1.6.5 Marketing .......................................... 14
1.6.6 After-Sales Service ................................ 14
1.7 Selling the Product ....................................... 14
1.7.1 Cost of Product Engi neeri ng ...................... 15
1.7.2 Actual Manufacturing Cost .......................... 15
1.7.3 Sales Expense and Administrative Cost .............. 16
1.7.4 Selling Price ...................................... 17
1.8 Planning for Retirement of the Product and Environmental
Considerations ............................................ 17
1.8.1 Recycling of Materials ............................. 17
1.8.2 Sources of Materials for Recycling ................. 18
1.8.3 The Infrastructure for Recycling Packaging
Materials .......................................... 19
1.8.4 Sorting ............................................ 19
1.8.5 Scrap Processing ................................... 19
1.8.6 Recyclability of Materials ......................... 20
1.9 The Product Life Cycle .................................... 20
1.10 Summary ................................................... 21
1.11 Review Questions .......................................... 22
Bibliography and Further Reading .......................... 23
PART I Performance of Materials in Service
Chapter 2 Failure under Mechanical Loading .................... 27
2.1 Introduction .............................................. 27
2.2 Types of Mechanical Failures .............................. 27
2.3 Fracture Toughness and Fracture Mechanics ................. 28
2.3.1 Crack Detection .................................... 29
2.3.2 Fracture Toughness of Materials .................... 29
2.4 Ductile and Brittle Fractures ............................. 33
2.4.1 Ductile Fractures .................................. 34
2.4.2 Brittle Fractures .................................. 35
2.4.3 Ductile-Brittle Transition ......................... 36
2.4.4 Design and Manufacturing Considerations ............ 38
2.5 Fatigue Failures .......................................... 38
2.5.1 Types of Fatigue Loading ........................... 39
2.5.2 Fatigue Strength ................................... 41
2.5.3 Crack Initiation ................................... 43
2.5.4 Crack Propagation .................................. 43
2.6 Elevated-Temperature Failures ............................. 45
2.6.1 Creep .............................................. 45
2.6.2 Combined Creep and Fatigue ......................... 46
2.6.3 Thermal Fatigue .................................... 47
2.7 Failure Analysis: Experimental Methods .................... 47
2.8 Failure Analysis: Analytical Techniques ................... 48
2.8.1 Fault Tree Analysis ................................ 49
2.8.2 Failure Logic Model ................................ 52
2.8.3 Failure Experience Matrix .......................... 53
2.8.4 Expert Systems ..................................... 54
2.8.5 Failure Prevention at the Design Stage ............. 54
2.9 Summary ................................................... 55
2.10 Review Questions .......................................... 55
Bibliography and Further Reading .......................... 56
Chapter 3 Environmental Degradation ........................... 59
3.1 Introduction .............................................. 59
3.2 Electrochemical Principles of Corrosion ................... 60
3.3 Types of Electrochemical Corrosion ........................ 64
3.3.1 General Corrosion .................................. 64
3.3.2 Galvanic Corrosion ................................. 64
3.3.3 Crevice Corrosion .................................. 65
3.3.4 Pitting Corrosion .................................. 66
3.3.5 Intergranular Corrosion ............................ 66
3.3.6 Selective Leaching ................................. 68
3.4 Combined Action of Stress and Corrosion ................... 68
3.4.1 Stress Corrosion Cracking .......................... 68
3.4.2 Corrosion Fatigue .................................. 69
3.4.3 Erosion Corrosion .................................. 70
3.4.4 Cav itation Damage ................................. 70
3.4.5 Fretting Corrosion ................................. 70
3.5 Corrosion of Plastics and Ceramics ........................ 70
3.5.1 Corrosion of Plastics .............................. 70
3.5.2 Corrosion of Ceramics .............................. 71
3.6 Oxidation of Materials .................................... 72
3.6.1 Oxidation of Metals ................................ 72
3.6.2 Oxidation of Plastics .............................. 74
3.6.3 Oxidation of Ceramics .............................. 75
3.7 Corrosion Control ......................................... 75
3.7.1 Galvanic Protection ................................ 75
3.7.2 Inhibitors ......................................... 77
3.8 Wear Failures ............................................. 77
3.8.1 Adhesive Wear ...................................... 79
3.8.2 Abrasive, Erosive, and Cavitation Wear ............. 80
3.8.3 Surface Fatigue .................................... 80
3.8.4 Lubrication ........................................ 80
3.9 Radiation Damage .......................................... 81
3.9.1 Radiation Damage by Electromagnetic Radiation ...... 81
3.9.2 Radiation Damage by Particles ...................... 82
3.10 Summary ................................................... 82
3.11 Review Questions .......................................... 83
Bibliography and Further Reading .......................... 83
Chapter 4 Selection of Materials to Resist Failure ............ 85
4.1 Introduction .............................................. 85
4.2 Classification and Designation of Engineering Materials ... 85
4.3 Selection of Materials for Static Strength ................ 87
4.3.1 Aspects of Static Strength ......................... 87
4.3.2 Level of Strength .................................. 88
4.3.3 Load-Carrying Capacity ............................. 89
4.4 Selection of Materials for Stiffness ...................... 92
4.4.1 Effect of Material Stiffness on Deflection under
Load ............................................... 92
4.4.2 Specific Stiffness ................................. 93
4.4.3 Effect of Material Stiffness on Buckling Strength .. 94
4.5 Selection of Materials for Higher Toughness ............... 96
4.5.1 Metallic Materials ................................. 96
4.5.2 Plastics and Composites ........................... 100
4.5.3 Ceramics .......................................... 101
4.6 Selection of Materials for Fatigue Resistance ............ 101
4.6.1 Steels and Cast Irons ............................. 102
4.6.2 Nonferrous Alloys ................................. 104
4.6.3 Plastics .......................................... 104
4.6.4 Composite Materials ............................... 104
4.7 Selection of Materials for High-Temperature Resistance ... 105
4.7.1 Creep Resistance of Metals ........................ 105
4.7.2 Performance of Plastics at High Temperatures ...... 106
4.7.3 Widely Used Materials for High-Temperature
Applications ...................................... 106
4.7.3.1 Room Temperature to 150°C (300°F) ........ 106
4.7.3.2 150-400°C (300-750°F) .................... 107
4.7.3.3 400-600°C (750-1100°F) ................... 107
4.7.3.4 600-1000°C (1100-1830°F) ................. 108
4.7.3.5 1000°C (1830°F) and above ................ 109
4.7.4 Niobium, Tantalum, and Tungsten ................... 109
4.7.5 Ceramics 109
4.8 Selection of Materials for Corrosion Resistance .......... 110
4.8.1 Corrosive Medium Parameters ....................... 110
4.8.2 Design Parameters ................................. 111
4.8.3 Material Parameters ............................... 111
4.8.4 Carbon Steels and Cast Irons ...................... 112
4.8.5 Stainless Steels .................................. 112
4.8.6 Nickel ............................................ 114
4.8.7 Copper ............................................ 114
4.8.8 Tin ............................................... 114
4.8.9 Lead .............................................. 114
4.8.10 Aluminum .......................................... 115
4.8.11 Titanium .......................................... 115
4.8.12 Tantalum and Zirconium ............................ 115
4.8.13 Metallic Glasses .................................. 115
4.8.14 Plastics and Fiber-Reinforced Plastics ............ 116
4.8.15 Ceramic Materials ................................. 116
4.8.16 Other Means of Resisting Corrosion ................ 117
4.9 Coatings for Protection against Corrosion ................ 117
4.9.1 Metallic Coatings ................................. 117
4.9.2 Organic Coatings .................................. 117
4.9.3 Vitreous Enamels .................................. 119
4.10 Selection of Materials for Wear Resistance ............... 120
4.10.1 Wear Resistance of Steels ......................... 120
4.10.2 Wear Resistance of Cast Irons ..................... 121
4.10.3 Nonferrous Alloys for Wear Applications ........... 122
4.10.4 Wear Resistance of Plastics ....................... 122
4.10.5 Wear Resistance of Ceramics ....................... 123
4.11 Wear-Resistant Coatings 124
4.12 Summary ............................................. 125
4.13 Review Questions .................................... 125
Bibliography and Further Reading ......................... 127
PART II Relationship between Design, Materials, and
Manufacturing Processes
Chapter 5 The Nature of Engineering Design ................... 131
5.1 Introduction ............................................. 131
5.2 General Considerations in Engineering Design ............. 132
5.2.1 Human Factors ..................................... 132
5.2.2 Industrial Design, Esthetic and Marketing
Considerations .................................... 133
5.2.3 Environmental Considerations ...................... 133
5.2.4 Functional Requirements ........................... 134
5.3 Major Phases of Design ................................... 134
5.4 Design Codes and Standards ............................... 137
5.5 Effect of Component Geometry ............................. 138
5.5.1 Stress Concentration Factor ....................... 138
5.5.2 Stress Concentration in Fatigue ................... 139
5.5.3 Guidelines for Design ............................. 139
5.6 Factor of Safety ......................................... 142
5.7 Reliability of Components ................................ 144
5.8 Summary .................................................. 147
5.9 Review Questions ......................................... 148
Bibliography and Further Reading ......................... 148
Chapter 6 Effect of Material Properties on Design ............ 151
6.1 Introduction ............................................. 151
6.2 Designing for Static Strength ............................ 151
6.2.1 Designing for Simple Axial Loading ................ 151
6.2.2 Designing for Torsional Loading ................... 152
6.2.3 Designing for Bending ............................. 153
6.3 Designing for Stiffness .................................. 154
6.3.1 Design of Beams ................................... 155
6.3.2 Design of Shafts .................................. 157
6.3.3 Designing of Columns .............................. 158
6.4 Designing with High-Strength Low-Toughness Materials ..... 159
6.4.1 Fail-Safe Design .................................. 159
6.4.2 Guidelines for Design ............................. 159
6.4.3 Leak-before-Burst ................................. 161
6.5 Designing against Fatigue ................................ 162
6.5.1 Factors Affecting Fatigue Behavior ................ 162
6.5.1.1 Endurance-Limit Modifying Factors ........ 163
6.5.2 Effect of Mean Stress ............................. 167
6.5.3 Cumulative Fatigue Damage ......................... 169
6.5.4 Other Fatigue-Design Criteria ..................... 169
6.6 Designing under High-Temperature Conditions .............. 170
6.6.1 Design Guidelines ................................. 170
6.6.2 Larson-Miller Parameter ........................... 172
6.6.3 Life under Variable Loading ....................... 174
6.6.4 Life under Combined Fatigue and Creep Loading ..... 175
6.7 Designing for Hostile Environments ....................... 175
6.7.1 Design Guidelines ................................. 175
6.8 Designing with Specific Materials (Material-Specific
Design Features) ......................................... 177
6.8.1 Designing with Metallic Materials ................. 177
6.8.2 Designing with Polymers ........................... 178
6.8.3 Designing with Ceramics ........................... 178
6.8.4 Designing with Composites ......................... 178
6.9 Summary .................................................. 180
6.10 Review Questions ......................................... 181
Bibliography and Further Reading ......................... 182
Chapter 7 Effect of Manufacturing Processes on Design ........ 185
7.1 Introduction ............................................. 185
7.2 Classification of Manufacturing Process .................. 185
7.2.1 Processing of Metallic Materials .................. 185
7.2.2 Processing of Plastic Parts ....................... 187
7.2.3 Processing of Ceramic Products .................... 188
7.2.4 Manufacture of Reinforced Plastic Components ...... 188
7.2.5 Manufacture of Reinforced Metal Components ........ 188
7.3 Selection of Manufacturing Processes ..................... 189
7.4 Design for Manufacture and Assembly ...................... 189
7.5 Design Considerations for Cast Components ................ 193
7.5.1 Guidelines for Design ............................. 196
7.5.2 Effect of Material Properties ..................... 197
7.6 Design Considerations for Molded Plastic Components ...... 197
7.6.1 Guidelines for Design ............................. 197
7.6.2 Accuracy of Molded Parts .......................... 198
7.7 Design Considerations for Forged Components .............. 200
7.7.1 Guidelines for Design ............................. 200
7.8 Design Considerations for Powder Metallurgy Parts ........ 201
7.8.1 Guidelines for Design ............................. 202
7.9 Design of Sheet Metal Parts .............................. 203
7.9.1 Guidelines for Design ............................. 204
7.10 Designs Involving Joining Processes ...................... 204
7.10.1 Welding ........................................... 204
7.10.1.1 Weldability of Materials ................. 206
7.10.1.2 Tolerances in Welded Joints .............. 207
7.10.1.3 Guidelines for Design of Weldments ....... 207
7.10.1.4 Types of Welded Joints ................... 208
7.10.1.5 Strength of Welded Joints ................ 208
7.10.2 Adhesive Bonding .................................. 210
7.10.2.1 Design of Adhesive Joints ................ 211
7.11 Designs Involving Heat Treatment ......................... 211
7.12 Designs Involving Machining Processes .................... 212
7.12.1 Machinability Index ............................... 212
7.12.2 Guidelines for Design ............................. 213
7.13 Summary .................................................. 219
7.14 Review Questions ......................................... 220
Bibliography and Further Reading ......................... 222
PART III Selection and Substitution of Materials in Industry
Chapter 8 Economics and Environmental Impact of Materials
and Processes ................................................. 227
8.1 Introduction ............................................. 227
8.2 Elements of the Cost of Materials ........................ 228
8.2.1 Cost of Ore Preparation ........................... 228
8.2.2 Cost of Extraction from the Ore ................... 228
8.2.3 Cost of Purity and Alloying ....................... 229
8.2.4 Cost of Conversion to Semifinished Products ....... 230
8.2.5 Cost of Conversion to Finished Product ............ 230
8.3 Factors Affecting Material Prices ........................ 230
8.3.1 General Inflation and Price Fluctuations .......... 231
8.3.2 Supply and Demand ................................. 231
8.3.3 Order Size ........................................ 231
8.3.4 Standardization of Grades and Sizes ............... 231
8.3.5 Inventory Costs ................................... 231
8.3.6 Cost Extras for Special Quality ................... 232
8.3.7 Geographic Location ............................... 232
8.4 Comparison of Materials on Cost Basis .................... 232
8.5 Value Analysis of Material Properties .................... 235
8.6 Economics of Material Utilization ........................ 237
8.7 Economic Competition in the Materials Field .............. 240
8.7.1 Legislation ....................................... 240
8.7.2 Cost Saving ....................................... 240
8.7.3 Superior Performance .............................. 241
8.7.1 Processing Time ................................... 241
8.8.1 Elements of Processing Time ....................... 241
8.9 Processing Cost .......................................... 242
8.9.1 Rules of Thumb .................................... 242
8.9.2 Standard Costs .................................... 242
8.9.3 Technical Cost Modeling ........................... 244
8.10 Economics of Time-Saving Devices ......................... 245
8.11 Environmental Impact Assessment of Materials and
Processes ................................................ 247
8.11.1 Environmental Considerations ...................... 247
8.11.2 Energy Content of Materials ....................... 247
8.11.3 Life Cycle Assessment ............................. 249
8.12 Recycling Economics ...................................... 251
8.13 Life Cycle Cost .......................................... 253
8.14 Summary .................................................. 255
8.15 Review Questions ......................................... 256
Bibliography and Further Reading ......................... 258
Chapter 9 The Materials Selection Process .................... 259
9.1 Introduction ............................................. 259
9.2 The Nature of the Selection Process ...................... 260
9.3 Analysis of the Material Performance Requirements and
Creating Alternative Solutions ........................... 262
9.3.1 Functional Requirements ........................... 262
9.3.2 Processability Requirements ....................... 262
9.3.3 Cost .............................................. 263
9.3.4 Reliability Requirements .......................... 263
9.3.5 Resistance to Service Conditions .................. 263
9.3.6 Creating Alternative Solutions .................... 263
9.4 Initial Screening of Solutions ........................... 264
9.4.1 Rigid Materials and Process Requirements .......... 264
9.4.2 Cost per Unit Property Method ..................... 265
9.4.3 Ashby's Method .................................... 267
9.4.4 Dargie's Method ................................... 268
9.4.5 Esawi and Ashby's Method .......................... 269
9.5 Comparing and Ranking Alternative Solutions .............. 270
9.5.1 Weighted Properties Method ........................ 270
9.5.2 Digital Logic Method .............................. 270
9.5.3 Performance Index ................................. 271
9.5.4 Limits on Properties Method ....................... 277
9.5.5 Analytic Hierarchy Process ........................ 280
9.6 Selecting the Optimum Solution ........................... 284
9.7 Computer Assistance in Making Final Selection ............ 291
9.7.1 CAD/САМ Systems ................................... 291
9.7.2 Expert Systems .................................... 291
9.8 Sources of Information for Materials Selection ........... 292
9.8.1 Locating Materials Properties Data ................ 292
9.8.2 Types of Material Information ..................... 293
9.8.3 Computerized Materials Databases .................. 293
9.9 Summary .................................................. 294
9.10 Review Questions ......................................... 295
Bibliography and Further Reading ......................... 299
Chapter 10 Material s Substitution ............................ 301
10.1 Introduction ............................................. 301
10.2 Materials Audit .......................................... 301
10.3 Considerations in Materials Substitution ................. 303
10.4 Screening of Substitution Alternatives ................... 304
10.5 Comparing and Ranking of Alternative Substitutes ......... 305
10.5.1 Cost of Performance Method of Substitution ........ 305
10.5.2 The Compound Performance Function Method .......... 306
10.6 Reaching a Final Decision ................................ 310
10.6.1 Cost-Benefit Analysis ............................. 310
10.6.2 Economic Advantage of Improved Performance ........ 310
10.6.3 Total Cost of Substitution ........................ 311
10.7 Summary .................................................. 316
10.8 Review Questions ......................................... 317
Bibliography and Further Reading ......................... 319
Chapter 11 Case Studies in Materials Selection and
Substitution .................................................. 321
11.1 Introduction ............................................. 321
11.2 Design and Selection of Materials for a Turnbuckle ....... 321
11.2.1 Introduction ...................................... 321
11.2.2 Factors Affecting Performance in Service .......... 322
11.2.3 Design Calculations ............................... 323
11.2.4 Design for Static Loading ......................... 323
11.2.5 Design for Fatigue Loading ........................ 325
11.2.6 Candidate Materials and Manufacturing Processes ... 326
11.2.7 Sample Calculations ............................... 327
11.3 Design and Selection of Materials for Surgical Implants .. 330
11.3.1 Introduction ...................................... 330
11.3.2 Main Dimensions and External Forces ............... 331
11.3.3 Fatigue-Loading Considerations .................... 332
11.3.4 Wear Considerations ............................... 333
11.3.5 Analysis of Implant Material Requirements ......... 334
11.3.5.1 Tissue Tolerance ......................... 334
11.3.5.2 Corrosion Resistance ..................... 334
11.3.5.3 Mechanical Behavior ...................... 334
11.3.5.4 Elastic Compatibility .................... 335
11.3.5.5 Weight ................................... 335
11.3.5.6 Cost ..................................... 335
11.3.6 Classification of Materials and Manufacturing
Processes for the Prosthesis Pin .................. 336
11.3.7 Evaluation of Candidate Materials ................. 336
11.3.8 Results ........................................... 338
11.4 Design and Materials Selection for Lubricated Journal
Bearings ................................................. 338
11.4.1 Introduction ...................................... 338
11.4.2 Design of the Journal Bearing ..................... 340
11.4.3 Analysis of Bearing Material Requirements ......... 342
11.4.4 Classification of Bearing Materials ............... 344
11.4.5 Selection of the Optimum Bearing Alloy ............ 345
11.4.6 Conclusion ........................................ 347
11.5 Analysis of the Requirements and Substitution
of Materials for Tennis Rackets .......................... 347
11.5.1 Introduction ...................................... 347
11.5.2 Analysis of the Functional Requirements of the
Tennis Racket ..................................... 348
11.5.3 Design Considerations ............................. 349
11.5.4 Classification of Racket Materials ................ 351
11.5.5 Material Substitution ............................. 351
11.5.6 Ranking of Alternative Substitutes ................ 351
11.5.7 Conclusion ........................................ 353
11.6 Materials Substitution in Automotive Industry ............ 353
11.6.1 Introduction ...................................... 353
11.6.2 Materials and Manufacturing Processes for
Interior Panels ................................... 355
11.6.3 Performance Indices of Interior Panels ............ 356
11.6.3.1 Technical Characteristics ................ 356
11.6.3.2 Cost Considerations for Interior Panel ... 357
11.6.3.3 Esthetics and Comfort .................... 358
11.6.3.4 Environmental Considerations ............. 359
11.6.4 Comparison of Candidate Materials ................. 360
11.6.5 Performance/Cost Method of Substitution ........... 360
11.6.6 The Compound Objective Function Method ............ 362
11.6.7 Conclusion ........................................ 363
Bibliography and Further Reading ......................... 363
PART IV Appendices
Appendix A: Composition and Properties of Selected
Engineering Materials .................................... 367
Appendix B: Conversion of Units and Hardness Values ........... 395
Appendix C: Glossary .......................................... 399
Index ......................................................... 413
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