Introduction .................................................... 1
Aims, Definitions, Methods ...................................... 2
1 Asian Wild Ass, Kulan - Equus hemionus ....................... 5
1.1 Status and Distribution ................................. 5
1.2 Measurements ............................................ 5
1.3 Habitat ................................................. 5
1.4 Diet and Feeding Habits ................................. 6
1.5 Social Organization and Behavior ........................ 9
1.6 Reproduction ........................................... 11
1.7 Mortality .............................................. 13
1.8 Population Structure and Densities ..................... 14
1.9 Relations to Man ....................................... 14
2 Wild Boar - Sus scrofa ...................................... 15
2.1 Status and Distribution ................................ 15
2.2 Measurements ........................................... 16
2.3 Habitat ................................................ 16
2.4 Diet and Feeding Habits ................................ 20
2.5 Social Organization and Behavior ....................... 24
2.6 Reproduction ........................................... 26
2.7 Mortality .............................................. 30
2.8 Population Structure and Densities ..................... 36
2.9 Relations to Man ....................................... 37
3 Musk Deer - Moschus moschiferus ............................. 39
3.1 Status and Distribution ................................ 39
3.2 Measurements ........................................... 39
3.3 Habitat ................................................ 40
3.4 Diet and Feeding Habits ................................ 43
3.5 Social Organization and Behavior ....................... 44
3.6 Reproduction ........................................... 47
3.7 Mortality .............................................. 48
3.1 Population Structure and Densities ..................... 50
3.9 Relations to Man ....................................... 51
4 Red Deer - Cervus elaphus ................................... 53
4.1 Status and Distribution ................................ 53
4.2 Measurements ........................................... 56
4.3 Habitat ................................................ 56
4.4 Diet and Feeding Habits ................................ 58
4.5 Social Organization and Behavior ....................... 64
4.6 Reproduction ........................................... 69
4.7 Mortality .............................................. 72
4.8 Population Structure and Densities ..................... 72
4.9 Relations to Man ....................................... 78
5 Sika Deer Manchurian - Cervus nippon ........................ 79
5.1 Status and Distribution ................................ 79
5.2 Measurements ........................................... 83
5.3 Habitat ................................................ 83
5.4 Diet and Feeding Habits ................................ 83
5.5 Social Organization and Behavior ....................... 84
5.6 Reproduction ........................................... 86
5.7 Mortality .............................................. 87
5.8 Population Structure and Densities ..................... 88
5.9 Relations to Man ....................................... 89
6 Moose - Alces alces ......................................... 91
6.1 Status and Distribution ................................ 91
6.2 Measurements ........................................... 92
6.3 Habitat ................................................ 92
6.4 Diet and Feeding Habits ................................ 97
6.5 Social Organization and Behavior ....................... 97
6.6 Reproduction .......................................... 102
6.7 Mortality ............................................. 103
6.8 Population Structure and Densities .................... 107
6.9 Relations to Man ...................................... 108
7 Roe Deer - Capreolus capreolus, C. pygargus ................ 109
7.1 Status and Distribution ............................... 109
7.2 Measurements .......................................... 110
7.3 Habitat ............................................... 110
7.4 Diet and Feeding Habits ............................... 113
7.5 Social Organization and Behavior ...................... 115
7.6 Reproduction .......................................... 118
7.1 Mortality ............................................. 119
7.8 Population Structure and Densities .................... 121
7.9 Relations to Man ...................................... 122
8 Reindeer - Rangifer tarandus ............................... 127
8.1 Status and Distribution ............................... 127
8.2 Measurements .......................................... 128
8.3 Habitat ............................................... 128
8.4 Diet and Feeding Habits ............................... 134
8.5 Social Organization and Behavior ...................... 137
8.6 Reproduction .......................................... 144
8.7 Mortality ............................................. 148
8.8 Population Structure and Densities .................... 153
8.9 Relations to Man ...................................... 155
9 Goitred Gazelle - Gazella subgutturosa ..................... 157
9.1 Status and Distribution ............................... 157
9.2 Measurements .......................................... 157
9.3 Habitat ............................................... 157
9.4 Diet and Feeding Habits ............................... 160
9.5 Social Organization and Behavior ...................... 163
9.6 Reproduction .......................................... 165
9.7 Mortality ............................................. 166
9.8 Population Structure and Densities .................... 169
9.9 Relations to Man ...................................... 169
10 Saiga Antelope - Saiga tatarica ............................ 171
10.1 Status and Distribution ............................... 171
10.2 Measurements .......................................... 172
10.3 Habitat ............................................... 172
10.4 Diet and Feeding Habits ............................... 176
10.5 Social Organization and Behavior ...................... 178
10.6 Reproduction .......................................... 180
10.7 Mortality ............................................. 182
10.8 Population Structure and Densities .................... 185
10.9 Relations to Man ...................................... 186
11 European Bison Wisent - Bison bonasus ...................... 187
11.1 Status and Distribution ............................... 187
11.2 Measurements .......................................... 188
11.3 Habitat ............................................... 188
11.4 Diet and Feeding Habits ............................... 190
11.5 Social Organization and Behavior ...................... 191
11.1 Reproduction .......................................... 193
11.7 Mortality ............................................. 195
11.8 Population Structure and Densities .................... 198
11.9 Relations to Man ...................................... 198
12 West Caucasian Tur - Capra caucasica ....................... 199
12.1 Status and Distribution ............................... 199
12.2 Measurements .......................................... 199
12.3 Habitat ............................................... 199
12.4 Diet and Feeding Habits ............................... 202
12.5 Social Organization and Behavior ...................... 202
12.6 Reproduction .......................................... 205
12.7 Mortality ............................................. 206
12.8 Population Structure and Densities .................... 206
12.9 Relations to Man ...................................... 206
13 East Caucasian Tur - Capra cylindricornis .................. 207
13.1 Status and Distribution ............................... 207
13.2 Measurements .......................................... 207
13.3 Habitat ............................................... 208
13.4 Diet and Feeding Habits ............................... 210
13.5 Social Organization and Behavior ...................... 211
13.6 Reproduction .......................................... 213
13.7 Mortality ............................................. 215
13.8 Population Structure and Densities .................... 215
13.9 Relations to Man ...................................... 216
14 Markhor - Capra falconeri .................................. 217
14.1 Status and Distribution ............................... 217
14.2 Measurements .......................................... 217
14.3 Habitat ............................................... 217
14.4 Diet and Feeding Habits ............................... 219
14.5 Social Organisation and Behaviour ..................... 220
14.6 Reproduction .......................................... 221
14.7 Mortality ............................................. 222
14.8 Population Structure and Densities .................... 222
14.9 Relations to Man ...................................... 222
15 Wild Goat - Capra hircus ................................... 223
15.1 Status and Distribution ............................... 223
15.2 Measurements .......................................... 223
15.3 Habitat ............................................... 224
15.4 Diet and Feeding Habits ............................... 225
15.1 Social Organization and Behavior ...................... 226
15.6 Reproduction .......................................... 227
15.7 Mortality ............................................. 227
15.8 Population Structure and Densities .................... 227
15.9 Relations to Man ...................................... 229
16 Asiatic Ibex - Capra sibirica .............................. 231
16.1 Status and Distribution ............................... 231
16.2 Measurements .......................................... 231
16.3 Habitat ............................................... 231
16.4 Diet and Feeding Habits ............................... 235
16.5 Social Organization and Behavior ...................... 237
16.6 Reproduction .......................................... 241
16.7 Mortality ............................................. 241
16.8 Population Structure and Densities .................... 243
16.9 Relations to Man ...................................... 244
17 Chinese Goral - Naemorhedus caudatus ....................... 245
17.1 Status and Distribution ............................... 245
17.2 Measurements .......................................... 245
17.3 Habitat ............................................... 245
17.4 Diet and Feeding Habits ............................... 249
17.5 Social Organization and Behavior ...................... 249
17.6 Reproduction .......................................... 252
17.7 Mortality ............................................. 252
17.8 Population Structure and Densities .................... 253
17.9 Relations to Man ...................................... 254
18 Musk Ox - Ovibos moschatus ................................. 255
18.1 Status and Distribution ............................... 255
18.2 Measurements .......................................... 255
18.3 Habitat ............................................... 255
18.4 Diet and Feeding Habits ............................... 256
18.5 Social Organization and Behavior ...................... 259
18.6 Reproduction .......................................... 260
18.7 Mortality ............................................. 261
18.8 Population Structure and Densities .................... 261
18.9 Relations to Man ...................................... 262
19 Argali, Asian Wild Sheep, Marco Polo Sheep - Ovis ammon .... 263
19.1 Status and Distribution ............................... 263
19.2 Measurements .......................................... 264
19.1 Habitat ............................................... 264
19.4 Diet and Feeding Habits ............................... 269
19.5 Social Organization and Behavior ...................... 269
19.6 Reproduction .......................................... 272
19.7 Mortality ............................................. 274
19.8 Population Structure and Densities .................... 276
19.9 Relations to Man ...................................... 276
20 Mouflon - Ovis aries ....................................... 277
20.1 Status and Distribution ............................... 277
20.2 Measurements .......................................... 277
20.3 Habitat ............................................... 278
20.4 Diet and Feeding Habits ............................... 280
20.5 Social Organization and Behavior ...................... 281
20.6 Reproduction .......................................... 282
20.7 Mortality ............................................. 282
20.8 Population Structure and Densities .................... 283
20.9 Relations to Man ...................................... 283
21 Snow Sheep - Ovis nivicola ................................. 285
21.1 Status and Distribution ............................... 285
21.2 Measurements .......................................... 286
21.3 Habitat ............................................... 286
21.4 Diet and Feeding Habits ............................... 290
21.5 Social Organization and Behavior ...................... 292
21.6 Reproduction .......................................... 293
21.7 Mortality ............................................. 296
21.8 Population Structure and Densities .................... 297
21.9 Relations to Man ...................................... 298
22 Urial - Ovis vignei ........................................ 299
22.1 Status and Distribution ............................... 299
22.2 Measurements .......................................... 299
22.3 Habitat ............................................... 300
22.4 Diet and Feeding Habits ............................... 304
22.5 Social Organization and Behavior ...................... 304
22.6 Reproduction .......................................... 306
22.7 Mortality ............................................. 309
22.8 Population Structure and Densities .................... 309
22.9 Relations to Man ...................................... 309
23 Chamois - Rupicapra rupicapra .............................. 311
23.1 Status and Distribution ............................... 311
23.2 Measurements .......................................... 311
23.1 Habitat ............................................... 312
23.4 Feeding ............................................... 312
23.5 Social Organization and Behavior ...................... 314
23.6 Reproduction .......................................... 317
23.7 Mortality ............................................. 317
23.8 Population Structure and Densities .................... 319
23.9 Relations to Man ...................................... 319
24 Przewalski's Horse - Equus caballus ........................ 321
24.1 Status and Distribution .............................. 321
25 Mongolian Gazelle - Procapra gutturosa .................. 323
25.1 Status and Distribution .............................. 323
Appendix 1 Plant Genera Eaten by Ungulates ................ 325
Appendix 2 Helminths and Ectoparasites .................... 377
References ................................................. 387
List of monographs and articles containing reviews of
ungulate ecology ........................................... 431
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