Yu A. Electrochemical supercapacitors for energy storage and delivery: findamentals and applications / A.Yu, V.Chabot, J.Zhang. - Boca Raton: CRC/Taylor & Francis, 2013. - xviii, 355 p.: ill. - (Electrochemical energy storage and conversion) (Green chemistry and chemical engineering). - Incl. bibl. ref. - Ind.: p.349-355. - Пер. загл.: Электрохимические суперконденсаторы для хранения и доставки энергии: основы и применения. - ISBN 978-1-4398-6989-5  Место хранения:   02 | Отделение ГПНТБ СО РАН | Новосибирск

Оглавление / Contents

Series Preface ................................................ iii Preface ........................................................ xv Authors ...................................................... xvii 1 Fundamentals of Electric Capacitors ........................ 1 1.1 Introduction ............................................... 1 1.1.1 History ............................................. 1 1.2 Electric Charge, Electric Field, and Electric Potential and Their Implications for Capacitor Cell Voltage .......... 2 1.2.1 Electric Charge ..................................... 2 1.2.2 Electric Field and Potential ........................ 4 1.2.3 Implication of Electric Potential in Capacitor Cell Voltage ........................................ 5 1.3 Capacitance Definition and Calculation ..................... 6 1.3.1 Dielectric Materials and Constants ................. 9 1.4 Capacitor Charging and Recharging Processes ............... 15 1.4.1 DC and AC Currents ................................. 15 1.4.2 Charging of Capacitor: RC Time ..................... 17 1.4.3 Discharge of Capacitor ............................. 18 1.5 Energy Storage in Capacitor ............................... 20 1.6 Capacitor Containing Electrical Circuits and Corresponding Calculation ................................. 21 1.6.1 Circuit Resistors .................................. 21 1.6.2 Circuit Capacitors ................................. 21 1.6.3 Inductors .......................................... 23 1.6.4 Resistor-Inductor Circuits ......................... 23 1.6.5 Inductor-Capacitor Circuits ........................ 25 1.6.5 Resistor-Inductor-Capacitor Circuits ............... 26 1.6.6 Resistive, Capacitive, and Inductive Loads for AC Circuits ........................................... 27 1.7 Types and Structures of Capacitors ........................ 32 1.7.1 Fixed Capacitors ................................... 32 1.7.2 Variable Capacitors ................................ 32 1.7.3 Power Capacitors ................................... 33 1.7.4 High-Voltage Capacitors ............................ 33 1.7.5 Interference-Suppression Capacitors ................ 33 1.7.6 Ferrodielectric Capacitors ......................... 34 1.7.7 Polar Polymer Dielectric Capacitors ................ 34 1.7.8 Linear and Nonlinear Capacitors .................... 34 1.8 Summary ................................................... 34 References ................................................ 35 2 Fundamentals of Electrochemical Double-Layer Supercapacitors ........................................... 37 2.1 Introduction .............................................. 37 2.2 Electrode and Electrolyte Interfaces and Their Capacitances .............................................. 38 2.2.1 Electric Double-Layer at Interface of Electrode and Electrolyte Solution ........................... 39 2.2.2 Double-Layer Net Charge Density by Gouy-Chapman- Stern (GCS) Modeling ............................... 45 2.2.3 Theoretical Differential Capacitance of Electric Double-Layer ....................................... 47 2.2.4 Differential Capacitance of Entire Double-Layer .... 48 2.2.5 Potential Drop Distribution within Electric Double-Layer ....................................... 50 2.2.6 Factors Affecting Double-Layer Capacitance ......... 51 2.2.7 Specific Adsorption of Ions and Effect on Double- Layer .............................................. 52 2.3 Electrode Potential and Double-Layer Potential Windows Using Different Electrode Materials and Electrolytes ...... 54 2.3.1 Electrode Potential ................................ 54 2.3.2 Double-Layer Potential Ranges or Windows ........... 56 2.4 Capacitance of Porous Carbon Materials .................... 58 2.4.1 Carbon Particles and Their Associated Electrode Layers ............................................. 59 2.4.2 Capacitances of Porous Carbon Materials and Their Associated Electrode Layers ........................ 61 2.5 Electrochemical Double-Layer Supercapacitors .............. 62 2.5.1 Structure and Capacitance .......................... 62 2.5.2 Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR) ................. 64 2.5.3 Leakage Resistance ................................. 66 2.5.4 Supercapacitor Charging and Discharging ............ 69 2.6 Energy and Power Densities of Electrochemical Supercapacitors ........................................... 79 2.6.1 Energy Densities ................................... 79 2.6.2 Power Densities .................................... 81 2.6.3 Ragone Plot: Relationship of Energy Density and Power Density ...................................... 86 2.7 Supercapacitor Stacking ................................... 89 2.7.1 Stacking in Series ................................. 89 2.7.2 Stacking in Parallel ............................... 90 2.8 Double-Layer Supercapacitors versus Batteries ............. 91 2.9 Applications of Supercapacitors ........................... 93 2.10 Summary ................................................... 95 References ................................................ 95 3 Fundamentals of Electrochemical Pseudocapacitors .......... 99 3.1 Introduction .............................................. 99 3.2 Electrochemical Pseudocapacitance of Electrode- Electrolyte Interface .................................... 102 3.2.1 Fundamental Electrochemistry of Pseudocapacitance ................................. 102 3.2.2 Pseudocapacitance Induced by Underpotential Deposition ........................................ 108 3.2.3 Pseudocapacitance Induced by Lithium Intercalation ..................................... 112 3.2.4 Pseudocapacitance Induced by Redox Couples ........ 113 3.2.5 Pseudocapacitance Induced in Electrically Conducting Polymer (ECP) .......................... 120 3.2.6 Coupling of Differential Double-Layer and Pseudocapacitance ................................. 121 3.3 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy and Equivalent Circuits ................................................. 124 3.4 Materials, Electrodes, and Cell Designs .................. 126 3.4.1 Electrode Materials ............................... 126 3.4.2 Cell Designs (Symmetric versus Asymmetric) ........ 129 3.5 Summary .................................................. 131 References ............................................... 132 4 Components and Materials for Electrochemical Supercapacitors .......................................... 135 4.1 Introduction ............................................. 135 4.1.1 Traditional Capacitors ............................ 135 4.1.2 Electrochemical Supercapacitors ................... 136 4.2 Anode and Cathode Structures and Materials ............... 137 4.2.1 Overview of Battery Functions and Materials ....... 137 4.2.2 Introducing Electrode Requirements for Electrochemical Supercapacitors ................... 142 4.2.3 Electrode Conductivity ............................ 143 4.2.4 Surface Area for EDLC Design ...................... 143 4.2.5 Pore Structure for EDLC Design .................... 144 4.2.6 Functionalization Effects on EDLCs ................ 146 4.2.7 Series Resistance in EDLC Design .................. 150 4.2.8 EDLC Electrode Materials .......................... 151 4.2.9 Pseudocapacitive Materials ........................ 166 4.2.10 Asymmetric Structures ............................. 177 4.3 Electrolyte Structures and Materials ..................... 180 4.3.1 Electrolyte Overview .............................. 180 4.3.2 Aqueous Electrolytes .............................. 182 4.3.3 Organic Electrolytes .............................. 183 4.3.4 Ionic Liquids ..................................... 184 4.3.5 Solid State Polymer Electrolytes .................. 185 4.4 Separator Structures ..................................... 189 4.5 Current Collectors ....................................... 190 4.6 Sealants ................................................. 192 4.7 Summary .................................................. 194 References ............................................... 194 5 Electrochemical Supercapacitor Design, Fabrication, and Operation ............................................ 203 5.1 Introduction ............................................. 203 5.2 Design Considerations .................................... 204 5.2.1 Cell Voltage ...................................... 204 5.2.2 Frequency Response ................................ 205 5.2.3 Lifetime and Cycle Charging ....................... 205 5.2.4 Polarity .......................................... 207 5.2.5 Heat and Temperature Effects ...................... 207 5.2.6 Humidity .......................................... 208 5.3 Single Cell Manufacturing ................................ 208 5.3.1 Electrode Materials ............................... 208 5.3.2 Electrode Fabrication ............................. 209 5.3.3 Electrolyte Preparation ........................... 209 5.3.4 Current Collector Preparation ..................... 210 5.3.5 Single Cell Structure and Assembly ................ 210 5.3.6 Considerations for Contact Area and Positioning ... 214 5.4 Supercapacitor Stack Manufacturing and Construction ...... 216 5.4.1 Cell Stacking to Form Modules ..................... 216 5.4.2 Utilizing Bipolar Design .......................... 217 5.5 Voltage Cell Balancing ................................... 219 5.5.1 Passive Balancing ................................. 220 5.5.2 Active Balancing .................................. 221 5.6 Cell Aging and Voltage Decay ............................. 221 5.7 Self Discharging ......................................... 224 5.8 Patent Review ............................................ 226 5.8.1 Patents on Electrode Materials .................... 226 5.8.2 Patents on Electrolytes ........................... 235 5.8.3 Patents on ES Designs ............................. 235 5.9 Major Commercial ES Products ............................. 240 5.10 Summary .................................................. 245 References ............................................... 245 6 Coupling with Batteries and Fuel Cells ................... 247 6.1 Introduction ............................................. 247 6.2 Coupling ES Systems with Other Energy Devices ............ 247 6.3 Hybrid Systems ........................................... 248 6.4 Supercapacitor Integration with Batteries ................ 250 6.4.1 ES-Battery Direct Coupling: Passive Control ....... 251 6.4.2 ES-Battery Indirect Coupling: Active Control ...... 252 6.4.3 Control Strategies ................................ 254 6.5 Supercapacitor Integration with Fuel Cells ............... 255 6.6 System Modeling and Optimization ......................... 257 6.6.1 Supercapacitor Modeling .......................... 259 6.6.2 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell Modeling ... 264 6.6.3 Power Systems Modeling ............................ 264 6.6.4 Optimization of Models ............................ 265 6.6.5 Control and Optimization of ESS ................... 268 6.7 Improving Dynamic Response and Transient Stability ....... 272 6.8 Summary .................................................. 274 References ............................................... 274 7 Characterization and Diagnosis Techniques for Electrochemical Supercapacitors .......................... 277 7.1 Introduction ............................................. 277 7.2 Electrochemical Cell Design and Fabrication .............. 278 7.2.1 Conventional Three-Electrode Cell Design and Fabrication ....................................... 278 7.2.2 Two-Electrode Test Cell Design and Assembly ....... 278 7.2.3 Differences between Three- and Two-Electrode Cell Supercapacitor Characterizations ............. 280 7.3 Cyclic Voltammetry (CV) .................................. 282 7.3.1 Double-Layer Specific Capacitance Characterization Using Three-Electrode Cell ....... 284 7.3.2 Double-Layer Specific Capacitance Characterization Using Two-Electrode Test Cell .... 287 7.3.3 Potential Scan Rate Effect on Specific Capacitance ....................................... 288 7.3.4 Pseudosupercapacitor Characterization by Cyclic Voltammetry ....................................... 289 7.4 Charging-Discharging Curve ............................... 291 7.4.1 Capacitance, Maximum Energy and Power Densities, and Equivalent Series Resistance Measurements ..... 292 7.4.2 Cycle Life Measurement Using Charging- Discharging Curves ................................ 294 7.5 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) ............. 294 7.5.1 Measurement and Instrumentation ................... 295 7.5.2 Equivalent Circuits ............................... 295 7.5.3 Supercapacitor Data Simulation to Obtain Parameter Values .................................. 302 7.6 Physical Characterization of Supercapacitor Materials .... 304 7.6.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) ................ 304 7.6.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy (ТЕМ) ............ 306 7.6.3 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) ........................... 307 7.6.4 Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDX) ........ 308 7.6.5 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) ............ 308 7.6.6 Raman Spectroscopy (RS) ........................... 309 7.6.7 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FUR) ..... 310 7.7 Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) Method ...................... 311 7.8 Summary .................................................. 312 References ............................................... 312 8 Applications of Electrochemical Supercapacitors .......... 317 8.1 Introduction ............................................. 317 8.2 Power Electronics ........................................ 318 8.3 Memory Protection ........................................ 318 8.4 Battery Enhancement ...................................... 321 8.5 Portable Energy Sources .................................. 323 8.6 Power Quality Improvement ................................ 324 8.7 Adjustable Speed Drives (ASDs) ........................... 326 8.7.1 Energy Storage Options for Different ASD Power Ratings ........................................... 327 8.8 High Power Sensors and Actuators ......................... 328 8.9 Hybrid Electric Vehicles ................................. 328 8.10 Renewable and Off-Peak Energy Storage .................... 330 8.11 Military and Aerospace Applications ...................... 331 8.12 Summary .................................................. 332 References ............................................... 332 9 Perspectives and Challenges .............................. 335 9.1 Introduction ............................................. 335 9.2 Market Challenges ........................................ 336 9.3 Electrode Material Challenges ............................ 337 9.3.1 Current Collectors ................................ 337 9.3.2 Double-Layer Electrode Materials .................. 338 9.3.3 Pseudocapacitor Electrode Materials ............... 339 9.3.4 Composite Electrode Materials ..................... 341 9.4 Electrolyte Innovations .................................. 343 9.5 Development of Computational Tools ....................... 343 9.6 Future Perspectives and Research Directions .............. 344 References ............................................... 345 Index ......................................................... 349