Preface ........................................................ XI
Contributors ................................................... XV
1 Introduction to microbiological growth and
contamination indoors ...................................... 1
Chin S. Yang and Patricia A. Heinsohn
1.1 Introduction ............................................... 1
1.2 Health Effects of Indoor Fungal and Bacterial Growth ....... 3
1.3 Team and Individual Expertise .............................. 4
1.4 Approach of This Book ...................................... 8
1.5 Conclusion ................................................ 10
2 Conducting building mold investigations ................... 15
Patricia A. Heinsohn
2.1 Introduction .............................................. 15
2.2 Baseline Investigation .................................... 17
2.2.1 Physical Inspection ................................ 19
2.2.2 Sampling Design .................................... 36
2.3 Destructive Testing Investigation ......................... 46
2.4 Sampling during Mold Remediation Oversight and Clearance .. 48
2.5 Conclusions ............................................... 48
3 Microbiological sampling strategies in indoor
environments .............................................. 51
Philip R. Morey
3.1 Introduction .............................................. 51
3.2 Sampling Strategy ......................................... 52
3.3 Spatial or Location Variables ............................. 53
3.4 Temporal (Time) Variables ................................. 54
3.5 Indoor/Outdoor Comparisons ................................ 55
3.6 Complaint and Noncomplaint Zones .......................... 56
3.7 Source and Air Samples .................................... 58
3.8 Bulk Samples .............................................. 59
3.9 Dust Samples .............................................. 61
3.10 Surface Sampling .......................................... 63
3.11 Culture Plate Impactions and Liquid Impingers ............. 65
3.12 Spore Trap Samplers ....................................... 66
3.13 Sampling by Filtration .................................... 68
3.14 Conclusions ............................................... 70
4 Microscopic analytical methods for fungi .................. 75
De-Wei Li, Chin S. Yang, and F. Harrington
4.1 Introduction .............................................. 75
4.2 Principles and Usage of Microscopes ....................... 76
4.2.1 Microscopes ........................................ 76
4.2.2 Microscope Objectives .............................. 79
4.2.3 Photomicrographic Accessories ...................... 80
4.3 Aseptic Technique and Biosafety ........................... 81
4.4 Sample Preparation for Spore Count ........................ 81
4.5 Materials Needed for Preparing Samples .................... 82
4.6 Staining and Mounting Techniques .......................... 83
4.7 Procedures for Identification and Quantification of
Spore Traps ............................................... 85
4.8 Techniques for Spore Count Analysis ....................... 87
4.9 Background Particulates (Nonspore Miscellaneous
Materials) ................................................ 90
4.10 Limits of Detection ....................................... 91
4.11 Data Presentation ......................................... 91
4.12 Variation of Replications and Duplications ................ 91
4.13 Sample Preparation for Direct Examination or from
Cultures .................................................. 92
4.13.1 Bulk Samples ....................................... 92
4.13.2 Bulk Dust Samples .................................. 93
4.13.3 Swab Samples ....................................... 93
4.13.4 Tape Lift Samples .................................. 94
4.13.5 Culture Samples .................................... 95
4.14 Evaluation of Fungal Infestation .......................... 96
4.15 Training of Microscopy Analysts ........................... 98
4.16 Quality Assurance/Quality Control Procedures .............. 99
4.17 WEB Resources ............................................ 100
5 Culture-based analytical methods for investigation of
indoor fungi ............................................. 105
Florence Q. Wu
5.1 Advantages and Limitations of Culture-Based Analytical
Methods .................................................. 105
5.2 Factors Influencing the Results of Culture-Based
Analysis ................................................. 107
5.2.1 Ecological Considerations ......................... 107
5.2.2 Viability of Fungal Spores ........................ 108
5.2.3 Selection of Culture Media ........................ 109
5.2.4 Concentration Variations .......................... 109
5.2.5 Sampler Performance, Sampling Time, and Culture
Preparation ....................................... 110
5.2.6 Experience of the Analyst ......................... 111
5.3 Culturable Sampling Considerations ....................... 112
5.3.1 Air Samples ....................................... 112
5.3.2 Surface Samples ................................... 112
5.3.3 Bulk Samples ...................................... 113
5.3.4 Dust Samples ...................................... 114
5.4 Sample Preparation Methods ............................... 114
5.5 Identification of Filamentous Fungi ...................... 116
5.6 Data Reporting ........................................... 117
5.7 Data Interpretation ...................................... 118
5.8 Laboratory Quality Assurance ............................. 119
6 Airborne bacteria in indoor environments ................. 123
Linda D. Stetzenbach
6.1 Introduction ............................................. 123
6.2 Bacterial Aerosols ....................................... 123
6.3 Selected Bacteria-Associated Health Effects .............. 124
6.4 Analysis of Samples for Airborne Bacteria ................ 125
6.5 Summary .................................................. 127
7 genetics-based analytical methods for bacteria and fungi
in the indoor environment ................................ 133
Richard A. Haugland and Stephen J. Vesper
7.1 Introduction ............................................. 133
7.2 Genetics-Based Analytical Techniques ..................... 134
7.2.1 In Vitro Nucleic Acid Amplification ............... 134
7.2.2 Hybridization Probes .............................. 137
7.2.3 Nucleic Acid Sequencing ........................... 138
7.2.4 Microbial Strain Typing ........................... 139
7.3 Applications of Genetics-based Methods for Indoor
Microbiological Analyses ................................. 139
7.3.1 Detection of Pathogenic, Allergenic, and
Toxigenic Bacteria and Fungi Using Nucleic
Amplification and Hybridization Probe Techniques .. 139
7.3.2 Microbial Strain Typing and Identification by
Nucleic Acid Sequencing ........................... 141
7.4 Quality Control/Quality Assurance and other Challenges ... 142
7.5 Outlook for the Future ................................... 144
8 wood in the built environment-conditions for mold and
decay .................................................... 155
Susan E. Anagnost
8.1 Introduction ............................................. 155
8.2 Molds and Wood Decay Fungi ............................... 155
8.3 Moisture Requirements for Growth of Molds and Wood Decay
Fungi .................................................... 158
8.4 Water and Wood—Relative Humidity versus Moisture
Content .................................................. 159
8.4.1 Wood Moisture Content and the Fiber Saturation
Point ............................................. 161
8.5 Moisture Requirements for Fungal Growth .................. 164
8.5.1 Moisture Requirements for Wood Decay Fungi ........ 164
8.5.2 Moisture Requirements for Mold Fungi .............. 166
8.6 The Effect of Changing Moisture and Temperature
Conditions ............................................... 167
8.7 Susceptibility of Building Materials to Mold ............. 168
8.7.1. Visible versus Concealed Mold ..................... 168
8.8 The Effects of Building Design and Construction .......... 170
8.9 Techniques for Assessment of Wood Decay and Mold in
Buildings ................................................ 172
8.9.1 Nondestructive Testing ............................ 174
8.9.2 Destructive Testing ............................... 175
8.10 Summary .................................................. 176
9 Use of statistical tools for data presentation and
analysis of indoor microorganisms ........................ 179
Stella M. Tsai
9.1 Introduction ............................................. 179
9.2 Descriptive Analysis ..................................... 180
9.3 Correlation .............................................. 183
9.4 r-test and Nonparametric Methods ......................... 185
9.4.1 Using i-test to Test Differences between Two Means
(Two Groups of Samples) ........................... 186
9.4.2 Nonparametric Test for Two Groups of Samples ...... 186
9.5 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Chi-Square Statistics ... 186
9.6 Discussion ............................................... 189
10 ecology of fungi in the indoor environment ............... 191
Chin S. Yang and De-Wei Li
10.1 Introduction ............................................. 191
10.2 Factors Affecting Fungal Growth Indoors .................. 191
10.2.1 Biotic Factors .................................... 192
10.2.2 Abiotic Factors ................................... 193
10.2.3 Interactions Between Temperature, Moisture, and
Fungi Indoors ..................................... 199
10.3 Ecological Interactions Between Fungi and Environmental
Factors .................................................. 200
10.3.1 Indoor Fungal Ecology ............................. 200
10.3.2 Specific Ecological Niche of Some Common Indoor
Fungi ............................................. 202
10.4 Release and Dispersal of Fungal Spores ................... 206
10.4.1 Fungal Spore Types and Their Release .............. 207
10.4.2 Fungal Spore Dispersal ............................ 208
10.5 Conclusions .............................................. 209
11 A retrospective and forensic approach to assessment of
fungal growth in the indoor environment .................. 215
Chin S. Yang
11.1 Introduction ............................................. 215
11.2 Microbial Forensics ...................................... 216
11.3 Rationales and Mycological Backgrounds ................... 216
11.4 Other Signs and Information .............................. 220
11.5 Case Studies ............................................. 223
11.6 Conclusions .............................................. 227
12 Microbial remediation in nonindustrial indoor
environments ............................................. 231
Philip R. Morey
12.1 Introduction ............................................. 231
12.2 Mold Remediation Principles .............................. 232
12.3 Mold Removal Methods ..................................... 233
12.4 Dust Control during Mold Remediation ..................... 233
12.5 Air Sampling for Molds ................................... 234
12.6 Clearance by Measurement of Residual Dust ................ 235
12.7 HVAC System Mold Remediation ............................. 236
12.8 Remediation of Room Contents in Moldy Buildings .......... 237
12.9 Quality Assurance during Mold Remediation ................ 237
12.10 Microbial Remediation of Legionellas and Biofilms ....... 238
12.11 Remediation of Sewage Contamination ..................... 239
Appendix Common airborne and indoor fungi and their
spores ........................................................ 243
De-Wei Li
Index ......................................................... 265
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