Preface to the Second Edition .................................. xv
Acknowledgments .............................................. xvii
About the Author .............................................. xix
Chapter 1 Ultrasonics: An Overview ............................ 1
1.1 Introduction ............................................... 1
1.2 Ultrasonics in Nature ...................................... 3
1.3 Historical Development ..................................... 6
1.4 Physical Acoustics ......................................... 7
1.5 Low-Frequency Bulk Acoustic Wave Applications .............. 8
1.6 Surface Acoustic Waves ..................................... 9
1.7 Piezoelectric Materials .................................... 9
1.8 High-Power Ultrasonics .................................... 10
1.9 Medical Ultrasonics ....................................... 10
1.10 Acousto-Optics ............................................ 11
1.11 Underwater Acoustics and Seismology ....................... 11
References ................................................ 11
Chapter 2 Introduction to Vibrations and Waves ................ 13
2.1 Vibrations ................................................ 13
2.1.1 Vibrational Energy ................................. 15
2.1.2 Exponential Solutions: Phasors ..................... 15
2.1.3 Damped Oscillations ................................ 16
2.1.4 Forced Oscillations ................................ 17
2.1.5 Phasors and Linear Superposition of Simple
Harmonic Motion .................................... 19
2.1.6 Fourier Analysis ................................... 21
2.1.7 Nonperiodic Waves: Fourier Integral ................ 22
2.2 Wave Motion ............................................... 24
2.2.1 Harmonic Waves ..................................... 26
2.2.2 Plane Waves in Three Dimensions .................... 27
2.2.3 Dispersion, Group Velocity, and Wave Packets ....... 28
Summary ................................................... 30
Questions ................................................. 30
Reference ................................................. 31
Chapter 3 Bulk Waves in Fluids ................................ 33
3.1 One-Dimensional Theory of Fluids .......................... 33
3.1.1 Sound Velocity ..................................... 35
3.1.1.1 Gases ..................................... 36
3.1.1.2 Liquids ................................... 37
3.1.2 Acoustic Impedance ................................. 38
3.1.3 Energy Density ..................................... 39
3.1.4 Acoustic Intensity ................................. 40
3.2 Three-Dimensional Model ................................... 40
3.2.1 Acoustic Poynting Vector ........................... 42
3.2.2 Attenuation ........................................ 43
3.2.2.1 Decibel Scale of Attenuation .............. 44
3.2.2.2 Relaxation Time Formulation for
Viscosity ................................. 44
3.2.2.3 Attenuation Due to Viscosity .............. 45
3.2.2.4 Attenuation Due to Thermal Conduction ..... 46
3.2.2.5 Molecular Relaxation ...................... 47
Summary ................................................... 48
Questions ................................................. 48
References ................................................ 49
Chapter 4 Introduction to the Theory of Elasticity ............ 51
4.1 A Short Introduction to Tensors ........................... 51
4.2 Strain Tensor ............................................. 52
4.3 Stress Tensor ............................................. 55
4.4 Thermodynamics of Deformation ............................. 56
4.5 Hooke's Law ............................................... 57
4.6 Other Elastic Constants ................................... 61
Summary ................................................... 63
Questions ................................................. 64
References ................................................ 64
Chapter 5 Bulk Acoustic Waves in Solids ....................... 65
5.1 ID Model of Solids ........................................ 65
5.2 Wave Equation in Three Dimensions ......................... 67
5.3 Material Properties ....................................... 70
5.4 Viscoelastic Solids ....................................... 74
5.4.1 Viscoelastic Models ................................ 75
5.4.2 Wave Propagation ................................... 77
Summary ................................................... 78
Questions ................................................. 78
References ................................................ 79
Chapter 6 Finite Beams: Radiation, Diffraction, and
Scattering ..................................................... 81
6.1 Radiation ................................................. 81
6.1.1 Point Source ....................................... 81
6.1.2 Radiation from a Circular Piston ................... 84
6.1.2.1 Fraunhofer (Far-Field) Region ............. 84
6.1.2.2 Fresnel (Near-Field) Approximation ........ 89
6.2 Scattering ................................................ 91
6.2.1 The Cylinder ....................................... 92
6.2.2 The Sphere ......................................... 93
6.3 Focused Acoustic Waves .................................... 94
6.4 Radiation Pressure ........................................ 96
6.5 Doppler Effect ............................................ 97
Summary ................................................... 99
Questions ................................................. 99
References ............................................... 100
Chapter 7 Reflection and Transmission of Ultrasonic Waves
at Interfaces ................................................. 101
7.1 Introduction ............................................. 101
7.2 Reflection and Transmission at Normal Incidence .......... 103
7.2.1 Standing Waves .................................... 105
7.2.2 Reflection from a Layer ........................... 107
7.3 Oblique Incidence: Fluid-Fluid Interface ................. 108
7.3.1 Symmetry Considerations ........................... 111
7.4 Fluid-Solid Interface .................................... 111
7.5 Solid-Solid Interface .................................... 120
7.5.1 Solid-Solid Interface: SH Modes ................... 120
7.5.2 Reflection at a Free Solid Boundary ............... 121
Summary .................................................. 122
Questions ................................................ 122
References ............................................... 123
Chapter 8 Rayleigh Waves ..................................... 125
8.1 Introduction ............................................. 125
8.2 Rayleigh Wave Propagation ................................ 125
8.3 Fluid-Loaded Surface ..................................... 130
8.3.1 Beam Displacement ................................. 134
8.3.2 Lateral Waves: Summary of Leaky Rayleigh Waves .... 137
8.3.3 Stoneley Waves at a Liquid-Solid Interface ........ 137
Summary .................................................. 138
Questions ................................................ 139
References ............................................... 139
Chapter 9 Lamb Waves ......................................... 141
9.1 Potential Method for Lamb Waves .......................... 141
9.2 Fluid-Loading Effects .................................... 147
9.2.1 Fluid-Loaded Plate: One Side ...................... 147
9.2.2 Fluid-Loaded Plate: Same Fluid Both Sides ......... 148
9.2.3 Fluid-Loaded Plate: Different Fluids .............. 148
9.2.4 Fluid-Loaded Solid Cylinder ....................... 149
9.2.5 Fluid-Loaded Tubes ................................ 149
Summary .................................................. 150
Questions ................................................ 150
References ............................................... 150
Chapter 10 Acoustic Waveguides ................................ 151
10.1 Introduction: Partial Wave Analysis ...................... 151
10.2 Waveguide Equation: SH Modes ............................. 151
10.3 Lamb Waves ............................................... 155
10.4 Rayleigh Waves ........................................... 156
10.5 Layered Substrates ....................................... 157
10.5.1 Love Waves ........................................ 158
10.5.2 Generalized Lamb Waves ............................ 161
10.5.3 Stoneley Waves .................................... 165
10.6 Multilayer Structures .................................... 167
10.7 Free Isotropic Cylinder .................................. 168
10.8 Waveguide Configurations ................................. 169
10.8.1 Overlay Waveguides ................................ 170
10.8.1.1 Slot Waveguide ........................... 170
10.8.1.2 Shorting Strip Waveguide ................. 170
10.8.2 Topographic Waveguides ............................ 171
10.8.3 Circular Fiber Waveguides ......................... 171
Summary .................................................. 171
Questions ................................................ 172
References ............................................... 172
Chapter 11 Crystal Acoustics .................................. 175
11.1 Introduction ............................................. 175
11.1.1 Cubic System ...................................... 176
11.2 Group Velocity and Characteristic Surfaces ............... 177
11.3 Piezoelectricity ......................................... 180
11.3.1 Introduction ...................................... 180
11.3.2 Piezoelectric Constitutive Relations .............. 181
11.3.3 Piezoelectric Coupling Factor ..................... 184
Summary .................................................. 185
Questions ................................................ 186
References ............................................... 186
Chapter 12 Cavitation and Sonoluminescence .................... 187
12.1 Bubble Dynamics .......................................... 187
12.1.1 Quasistatic Bubble Description .................... 187
12.1.2 Bubble Dynamics ................................... 188
12.1.2.1 Bjerknes Forces .......................... 190
12.1.2.2 Rectified Diffusion ...................... 190
12.1.3 Acoustic Emission ................................. 191
12.1.4 Acoustic Response of Bubbly Liquids ............... 191
12.2 Multibubble Sonoluminescence ............................. 193
12.2.1 Summary of Experimental Results ................... 194
12.3 Single Bubble SL ......................................... 196
12.3.1 Introduction ...................................... 196
12.3.2 Experimental Setup ................................ 197
12.3.3 Bubble Dynamics ................................... 200
12.3.3.1 Bubble Stability ......................... 201
12.3.4 Key Experimental Results in Water ................. 202
12.3.4.1 SBSL Spectrum ............................ 202
12.3.4.2 Direct Test of the DH Hypothesis ......... 203
12.3.4.3 SBSL Pulse Width ......................... 204
12.3.4.4 Shock Waves .............................. 204
12.3.4.5 Ambient Pressure Variation ............... 205
12.3.5 Successful Models in Water ........................ 206
12.3.6 SBSL in Other Liquids ............................. 206
12.3.7 Similarities between MBSL and SBSL ................ 209
Summary .................................................. 210
Questions ................................................ 210
References ............................................... 211
Chapter 13 Bulk Acoustic Wave Transducers, Delay Lines, and
Oscillators ................................................... 213
13.1 Bulk Acoustic Wave Transducers ........................... 213
13.1.1 Unloaded Transducer ............................... 216
13.1.2 Loaded Transducer ................................. 218
13.2 Bulk Acoustic Wave Delay Lines ........................... 219
13.2.1 Pulse Echo Mode ................................... 219
13.2.2 Buffer Rod Materials .............................. 221
13.2.3 Acoustic Losses in Buffer Rods .................... 222
13.2.3.1 Diffraction .............................. 222
13.2.3.2 Parallelism .............................. 222
13.2.4 ВAW Buffer Rod Applications ....................... 223
13.2.5 Clad Buffer Rods .................................. 223
13.3 Quartz Crystal Resonators ................................ 224
13.3.1 Introduction ...................................... 224
13.3.2 Cuts and Modes .................................... 226
13.3.3 Resonator Structure and Packaging ................. 226
13.3.4 Recent Developments ............................... 227
13.4 Silicon Oscillators ...................................... 228
Summary .................................................. 229
Questions ................................................ 230
References ............................................... 230
Chapter 14 Surface Acoustic Wave Transducers, Analog Signal
Processing, and Mobile Applications ........................... 233
14.1 Introduction ............................................. 233
14.2 Basic Components ......................................... 234
14.2.1 Interdigital Transducer ........................... 234
14.2.1.1 Other Models ............................. 235
14.2.2 Delay Line Configuration .......................... 237
14.2.3 Reflective Arrays ................................. 238
14.2.4 Multistrip Coupler ................................ 239
14.3 Materials and Technology ................................. 240
14.3.1 Substrates ........................................ 240
14.3.2 Temperature Coefficient of Delay .................. 240
14.3.3 Pseudo-Saw Modes .................................. 241
14.3.4 Electrodes ........................................ 241
14.4 Signal Processing ........................................ 241
14.4.1 Delay Lines ....................................... 241
14.4.2 Bandpass Filter ................................... 242
14.4.3 Resonators and Resonator Filters .................. 245
14.4.3.1 One Port Resonator ....................... 245
14.4.3.2 Two Port Resonator ....................... 246
14.4.4 Oscillators ....................................... 247
14.4.5 Time-Coded Dispersive Elements .................... 248
14.4.5.1 Chirp .................................... 249
14.4.5.2 Reflective Array Compression ............. 249
14.4.5.3 Convolver ................................ 249
14.5 Saw Applications ......................................... 250
14.5.1 Historical Development ............................ 250
14.5.2 SAW Filters in Mobile Devices ..................... 251
14.5.2.1 IF Filters ............................... 251
14.5.2.2 RF Filters ............................... 252
14.6 Saw Wireless Communication to Coded Devices ........ 253
Summary .................................................. 255
Questions ................................................ 256
References ............................................... 256
Chapter 15 Microacoustics: RF MEMS, FBAR, and CMUT ............ 259
15.1 Introduction ............................................. 259
15.2 Overview of MEMS Technology .............................. 259
15.2.1 Microelectronic Materials ......................... 260
15.2.2 Patterning and Etching Techniques ................. 261
15.2.3 Doping ............................................ 262
15.2.4 CMOS Circuitry .................................... 263
15.2.5 Micromachining and MEMS ........................... 263
15.3 RF MEMS .................................................. 265
15.3.1 RF MEMS Resonators ................................ 265
15.3.2 MEMS as Circuit Elements .......................... 266
15.3.3 Chip Scale Atomic Clocks .......................... 267
15.3.4 Practical Issues and Perspectives ................. 268
15.4 FBAR ..................................................... 268
15.4.1 Historical Background ............................. 269
15.4.2 FBAR and SMR Technology ........................... 271
15.4.3 FBAR and SMR Devices .............................. 272
15.4.4 Comparison of FBAR and SAW for RF Applications .... 274
15.4.5 Conclusions and Perspectives ...................... 275
15.5 CMUT Capacitive Transducers .............................. 276
15.5.1 CMUT Fabrication Technology ....................... 277
15.5.2 Performance Enhancement of CMUTs .................. 279
Summary .................................................. 280
Questions ................................................ 280
References ............................................... 281
Chapter 16 Acoustic Sensors ................................... 283
16.1 Thickness-Shear Mode Resonators .......................... 283
16.1.1 TSM Resonator in Liquid ........................... 287
16.1.2 TSM Resonator with a Viscoelastic Film ............ 288
16.1.3 Lateral Field Excited Sensors ..................... 289
16.1.4 Electrodeless QCM Sensors ......................... 290
16.2 Saw Sensors .............................................. 290
16.2.1 SAW Interactions .................................. 291
16.2.2 Acoustoelectric Interaction ....................... 292
16.2.3 Elastic and Viscoelastic Films on SAW Substrates .. 295
16.2.4 Wireless SAW Sensors .............................. 295
16.3 SH-Type Sensors .......................................... 296
16.3.1 Acoustic Plate Mode Sensors ....................... 296
16.3.2 SH-SAW Sensor ..................................... 298
16.3.1 Love Mode Sensors ................................. 299
16.3.4 Surface Transverse Wave Sensors ................... 299
16.4 Flexural Plate Wave Sensors .............................. 300
16.5 CMUT Chem/Biosensor ...................................... 303
16.6 FBAR Liquid Sensors ...................................... 303
16.7 Thin-Rod Acoustic Sensors ................................ 304
16.8 Gravimetric Sensitivity Analysis and Comparison .......... 307
16.9 Physical Sensing of Liquids .............................. 311
16.9.1 Density Sensing ................................... 311
16.9.2 Viscosity Sensing ................................. 312
16.9.3 Temperature Sensing ............................... 313
16.9.4 Flow Sensing ...................................... 314
16.9.5 Level Sensing ..................................... 315
16.10 Chemical Gas Sensors .................................... 316
16.10.1 Introduction ..................................... 316
16.10.2 Chemical Interfaces for Sensing .................. 316
16.10.3 Sensor Arrays .................................... 317
16.10.4 Gas Chromatography with Acoustic Sensor
Detection ........................................ 318
16.10.5 Artificial Olfactory Mucosa ...................... 318
16.11 Taste Sensing: Electronic Tongue ........................ 320
16.12 Biosensing .............................................. 321
16.13 Perspectives in Acoustic Sensors ........................ 323
Summary .................................................. 323
Questions ................................................ 324
References ............................................... 324
Chapter 17 Focused Beam Acoustic Microscopy ................... 329
17.1 Introduction ............................................. 329
17.2 Resolution ............................................... 333
17.3 Acoustic Lens Design ..................................... 338
17.4 Contrast Mechanisms and Quantitative Measurements ........ 341
17.4.1 V(z) Theory ....................................... 341
17.4.2 Reflectance Function from Fourier Inversion ....... 343
17.4.3 Line Focus Beam ................................... 343
17.4.4 Subsurface (Interior) Imaging ..................... 345
17.5 Applications of Acoustic Microscopy ...................... 346
17.5.1 Biological Samples ................................ 346
17.5.2 Films and Substrates .............................. 348
17.5.3 NDE of Materials .................................. 349
17.5.4 NDE of Devices .................................... 350
Summary .................................................. 351
Questions ................................................ 352
References ............................................... 352
Chapter 18 Near-Field Acoustic Microscopy ..................... 355
18.1 Introduction ............................................. 355
18.2 Scanning Tunneling Microscope ............................ 356
18.3 Atomic Force Microscope .................................. 357
18.4 Ultrasonic AFM ........................................... 359
18.4.1 Physical Model for Dynamic Contact Mechanics ...... 359
18.5 Contact Resonance Force Microscopy ....................... 361
18.5.1 Atomic Force Acoustic Microscopy .................. 362
18.5.1.1 Flexural Vibrations of Cantilevers with
the End Unconstrained .................... 364
18.5.1.2 Flexural Vibrations of Cantilevers with
the Tip in Contact ....................... 365
18.5.1.3 Physical Model for Tip-Surface Contact ... 367
18.5.1.4 Imaging .................................. 368
18.5.1.5 Applications ............................. 368
18.5.2 Ultrasonic Atomic Force Microscopy ................ 370
18.5.3 Lateral and TR Mode Microscopy .................... 370
18.5.3.1 Ultrasonic Friction Force Microscopy ..... 370
18.5.3.2 TR Mode or TR-AFM ........................ 371
18.6 Mechanical Diode Effect Microscopy ....................... 371
18.6.1 Ultrasonic Force Microscopy ....................... 371
18.6.2 Mechanical Diode Ultrasonic Friction Force
Microscopy ........................................ 374
18.6.3 Heterodyne Force Microscopy ....................... 374
18.6.4 Scanning Near-Field Ultrasound Holography ......... 374
18.7 Acoustic Wave Probe Microscopy ........................... 376
18.8 Other Probe Microscopies ................................. 380
18.8.1 Piezoresponse Force Microscopy .................... 380
18.8.2 Optical Heterodyne Force Microscopy ............... 381
18.9 Perspectives ............................................. 382
Summary .................................................. 382
Questions ................................................ 383
References ............................................... 384
Chapter 19 Nondestructive Evaluation of Materials ............. 387
19.1 Introduction ............................................. 387
19.2 Surfaces ................................................. 390
19.2.1 Principles of Rayleigh Wave NDE ................... 391
19.2.2 Generation of Rayleigh Waves for NDE .............. 392
19.2.3 Critical Angle Reflectivity ....................... 392
19.3 Plates ................................................... 394
19.3.1 Leaky Lamb Waves: Dispersion Curves ............... 394
19.3.2 NDE Using Leaky Lamb Waves ........................ 395
19.4 Layered Structures ....................................... 396
19.4.1 Inversion Procedures .............................. 396
19.4.2 Modal Frequency Spacing Method .................... 398
19.5 Adhesion ................................................. 400
19.6 Thickness Gauging ........................................ 402
19.6.1 Mode-Cutoff-Based Approaches ...................... 404
19.7 Process Control .......................................... 407
19.8 Structural Health Monitoring ............................. 408
19.9 Time Reversal Mirrors .................................... 409
Summary .................................................. 411
Questions ................................................ 412
References ............................................... 412
Chapter 20 Non/Loosely Contacting NDE Techniques .............. 415
20.1 Laser Ultrasonics ........................................ 415
20.1.1 Laser Generation of Ultrasound .................... 416
20.1.2 Laser Detection of Ultrasound ..................... 417
20.1.2.1 Homodyne Reference Beam Interferometry ... 417
20.1.2.2 Heterodyne Reference Beam
Interferometry ........................... 418
20.1.2.3 Self-Referential Interferometry .......... 418
20.1.2.4 Fiber Optic Ultrasound Sensors ........... 419
20.1.2.5 Sensitivity Considerations ............... 419
20.1.3 NDE Applications .................................. 419
20.1.3.1 Microelectronic Device Characterization .. 420
20.1.4 Picosecond Laser Ultrasonics ...................... 424
20.1.4.1 Dispersion of Long-Wavelength Phonons .... 425
20.1.4.2 Experimental Setup and Data Analysis ..... 426
20.1.4.3 FBAR Characterization .................... 426
20.2 Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers ..................... 427
20.2.1 Generation ........................................ 428
20.2.2 Detection ......................................... 430
20.2.3 Configurations and Operation ...................... 430
20.2.4 Applications ...................................... 431
20.3 Air-Coupled Transducers .................................. 432
20.3.1 Piezoelectric Transducers ......................... 433
20.3.2 Capacitive and Micromachined Transducers .......... 434
20.3.3 Comparison of Transducer Sensitivities ............ 435
20.4 Resonant Ultrasound Spectroscopy ......................... 436
20.4.1 Theoretical Background and Data Analysis .......... 437
20.4.2 Experimental Methods .............................. 438
20.4.3 Special Techniques ................................ 438
20.4.4 Resonant Ultrasound Microscopy .................... 439
Summary ....................................................... 441
Questions ..................................................... 441
References .................................................... 442
Appendix A: Bessel Functions .................................. 445
Appendix B: Acoustic Properties of Materials .................. 447
Appendix C: Complementary Laboratory Experiments .............. 469
Index ......................................................... 475
|
