1 Introduction ................................................. 1
1.1 Short historical note ................................... 1
1.2 Classification .......................................... 2
1.3 Definitions ............................................. 4
References ................................................... 6
2 Microorganism Involved in Biodegradation of Materials ........ 7
2.1 General classification of living things ................. 7
2.2 Bacteria ................................................ 8
2.2.1 Actinobacteria ................................... 9
2.2.2 Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi .......................... 11
2.2.3 Chlamydiae/Verrucomicrobiae ..................... 12
2.2.4 Chloroflexi ..................................... 13
2.2.5 Cyanobacteria ................................... 13
2.2.6 Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria ..................... 14
2.2.7 Firmicutes ...................................... 14
2.2.8 Fusobacteria .................................... 17
2.2.9 Nitrospirae ..................................... 17
2.2.10 Planctomycetes .................................. 17
2.2.11 Proteobacteria .................................. 17
2.2.12 Thermodesulfobacteria ........................... 23
2.2.13 Thermotogae ..................................... 23
2.3 Fungi .................................................. 23
2.3.1 Ascomycota ...................................... 24
2.3.2 Basidiomycota ................................... 27
2.3.3 Blastocladiomycota .............................. 28
2.3.4 Chytridiomycota ................................. 28
2.3.5 Glomeromycota ................................... 29
2.3.6 Microsporidia ................................... 29
2.3.7 Neocallimastigomycota ........................... 29
2.4 Protozoa ...............................................
2.5 Biodegradation & biodeterioration mechanisms ........... 30
References .............................................
3 Industrial Biocides ......................................... 42
3.1 General mechanism of biostabilization .................. 41
3.2 Chemical types of biostabilizers ....................... 47
3.2.1 Acetal aldehyde-releasing compounds ............. 48
3.2.2 Acid esters ..................................... 49
3.2.3 Acids ........................................... 50
3.2.4 Active halogen products ......................... 51
3.2.5 Alcohols ........................................ 53
3.2.6 Aldehydes ....................................... 54
3.2.7 Amides .......................................... 55
3.2.8 Azoles .......................................... 57
3.2.9 Carbamates ...................................... 58
3.2.10 Formaldehyde-releasing compounds ................ 60
3.2.11 Haloalkylthio compounds ......................... 61
3.2.12 Heterocyclic N,S compounds ...................... 63
3.2.13 Metal-containing products ....................... 64
3.2.14 Oxidizing agents ................................ 66
3.2.15 Phenolics ....................................... 67
3.2.16 Polymeric materials ............................. 68
3.2.17 Pyridine derivatives ............................ 69
3.2.18 Quaternary ammonium compounds and other
surface active agents ........................... 70
3.2.19 Other (not included) products ................... 72
3.3 Principles of selection of biostabilizers .............. 73
3.4 Longevity of biostabilized materials ................... 76
References .............................................
4 Biodegradation, Biodeterioration, and Biostabilization
of Industrial Products ...................................... 81
4.1 Building materials ..................................... 82
4.2 Coatings and paints .................................... 87
4.3 Cultural heritage ...................................... 97
4.4 Dental materials ...................................... 101
4.5 Electrical and electronic products .................... 104
4.6 Fibers and textiles ................................... 106
4.7 Leather and leather products .......................... 110
4.7.1 General information ............................ 110
4.7.2 Rawhide and skin ............................... 113
4.7.2.1 Structure ............................. 113
4.7.2.2 Composition of raw leather ............ 113
4.7.2.3 Damage caused to the animal ........... 114
4.7.2.4 Damage to a hide by the autolysis ..... 117
4.7.2.5 Bacterial deterioration of fresh
skins ................................. 118
4.7.2.6 Bacterial deterioration of salted
hides ................................. 120
4.7.2.7 Microorganisms in the skin
processing ............................ 124
4.7.3 Leather ........................................ 132
4.7.3.1 General data .......................... 132
4.7.3.2 The microbiological decomposition of
tanned leather ........................ 133
4.7.4 Contamination of shoe materials ................ 134
4.7.4.1 General data .......................... 134
4.7.4.2 Microbiological aspects of the use
of footwear ........................... 135
4.7.5 Leather and parchment in library materials ..... 142
4.7.5.1 General data .......................... 142
4.7.5.2 Archaeological leather ................ 143
4.7.5.3 Hard leather bindings ................. 144
4.7.5.4 Parchment ............................. 147
4.7.6 Protection of skin and leather from
microflora ..................................... 153
4.7.6.1 General data .......................... 153
4.7.6.2 Preservation of raw hides ............. 153
4.7.6.3 Chemical preservatives ................ 159
4.7.6.4 Skin protection against
microorganisms in the tanning
processes ............................. 164
4.7.6.5 The use of biocides in the leather
industry, and legislation, health
and environment ....................... 170
4.7.6.6 Antimicrobial shoe materials and
footwear .............................. 173
4.7.6.7 Protection of heritage leather
products against germs ................ 175
4.8 Marine transport and installations .................... 184
4.9 Medical applications .................................. 194
4.10 Metals ................................................ 197
4.11 Mineral dispersions ................................... 200
4.12 Petroleum products .................................... 202
4.12.1 General data ................................... 202
4.12.2 Microorganisms in fuels ........................ 203
4.12.2.1 Microbes in the aviation fuels and
jet fuels ............................. 206
4.12.2.2 Microbes in the automotive fuel ....... 210
4.12.2.3 Microbes in marine fuels .............. 211
4.12.2.4 Microorganisms in gasoline ............ 212
4.12.2.5 Microorganisms in heating oil ......... 212
4.12.3 Microorganisms in lubricating oils ............. 214
4.12.4 Microbes in the hydraulic oils ................. 216
4.12.5 Microorganisms in turbine oils ................. 217
4.12.6 Microorganisms in transformer oils ............. 217
4.12.7 Microorganisms in oil emulsions ................ 218
4.12.8 Microbes in the oil-water emulsions used in
hydraulic systems in coal mines ................ 224
4.12.9 Microbes in asphalt and insulating materials ... 226
4.12.10 Biocides in the protection of petroleum
products ....................................... 227
4.13 Pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and toiletries ............ 235
4.14 Polymers .............................................. 238
4.14.1 Acrylics ....................................... 238
4.14.2 Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolymer ...... 241
4.14.3 Alkyd resins ................................... 241
4.14.4 Epoxy resin .................................... 243
4.14.5 Ethylene propylene copolymers .................. 244
4.14.6 Ionomer ........................................ 244
4.14.7 Phenolic resins ................................ 245
4.14.8 Polyamides ..................................... 246
4.14.9 Polycarbonate .................................. 248
4.14.10 Polyetheretherketone .......................... 250
4.14.11 Polyethylene .................................. 250
4.14.12 Polyethylene oxide) ........................... 252
4.14.13 Polyethylene terephthalate) ................... 253
4.14.14 Polyimide ..................................... 254
4.14.15 Polymethylmethacrylate ........................ 255
4.14.16 Polyoxymethylene .............................. 255
4.14.17 Polypropylene ................................. 256
4.14.18 Polystyrene ................................... 257
4.14.19 Polysulfone ................................... 258
4.14.20 Polytetrafluoroethyelene ...................... 259
4.14.21 Polyurethanes ................................. 259
4.14.22 Polyvinyl alcohol) ............................ 262
4.14.23 Polyvinyl chloride) ........................... 263
4.14.24 Silicone ...................................... 265
4.15 Pulp and paper ........................................ 266
4.16 Roofing materials ..................................... 269
4.17 Rubber ................................................ 271
4.18 Sealants and adhesives ................................ 273
4.19 Stones including cultural heritage .................... 275
4.20 Swimming pools ........................................ 279
4.21 Water ................................................. 281
4.22 Wood .................................................. 283
5 Analytical methods in biodegradation, biodeterioration,
and biostabilization ....................................... 291
5.1 Standards ............................................. 291
5.1.1 Adhesives and sealants ......................... 291
5.1.2 Antifouling coatings ........................... 291
5.1.3 Antiseptic drugs and handwash .................. 292
5.1.4 Chemical materials in general .................. 293
5.1.5 Coatings and paints ............................ 293
5.1.6 Cooling water systems .......................... 294
5.1.7 Detergents ..................................... 294
5.1.8 Fuels and fuel systems ......................... 294
5.1.9 Geomembranes and geotextiles ................... 295
5.1.10 Hydraulic fluids ............................... 295
5.1.11 Lubricants ..................................... 295
5.1.12 Lumber, pallets, and wood boxes ................ 296
5.1.13 Metal working fluids ........................... 296
5.1.14 Oilfield and refinery .......................... 296
5.1.15 Oil spill response ............................. 296
5.1.16 Packaging ...................................... 297
5.1.17 Paper .......................................... 297
5.1.18 Plastics and polymers .......................... 297
5.1.19 Stone consolidants ............................. 298
5.1.20 Surgical implants and medical devices .......... 298
5.1.21 Water systems ................................. 299
5.2 Other analytical methods .............................. 299
References ................................................. 302
6 Biostabilizers - Health & Safety ........................... 309
6.1 Toxic substance control ............................... 309
6.2 Carcinogenic effect ................................... 311
6.3 Workplace exposure limits ............................. 312
6.4 Food regulatory acts .................................. 315
References ................................................. 316
7 Environmental Fate of Biostabilizers ....................... 317
7.1 Concentration ......................................... 317
7.2 Toxicity .............................................. 320
7.3 Decay ................................................. 322
References ................................................. 326
8 Legislation ................................................ 329
8.1 European Union ........................................ 329
8.2 International ......................................... 331
8.3 USA ................................................... 332
References ................................................. 333
9 Personal Protection ........................................ 335
9.1 Clothing .............................................. 335
9.2 Gloves ................................................ 336
9.3 Eye protection ........................................ 338
9.4 Respiratory protection ................................ 339
References ................................................. 342
Index ......................................................... 345
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