List of tables and figures ...................................... x
How to read this book .......................................... xi
Preface ....................................................... xii
Abbreviations and conventions ................................. xiv
1 Basics ....................................................... 1
1.1 What this book is about ................................. 1
1.2 Linguistics as a branch of natural science .............. 1
1.3 Prototypical patterns and variations on them ............ 4
1.4 Grammatical labels ...................................... 9
1.5 Limitations of a language .............................. 12
1.6 Why is each language the way it is? .................... 14
1.7 Meaning and its organization in a language ............. 22
1.8 A grammar as an integrated system ...................... 24
1.9 Grammar and meaning .................................... 27
1.10 The basics of grammar .................................. 35
1.11 Grammar and lexicon .................................... 47
Sources and notes ........................................... 54
2 Principles to Follow ........................................ 57
2.1 Writing a grammar ...................................... 57
2.2 Always go back to the primary sources .................. 64
2.3 Unfashionable issues ................................... 66
2.4 Avoid the fashion fads ................................. 70
2.5 Avoid sloppy terminology ............................... 75
2.6 How to learn linguistics 80 Sources and notes .......... 90
3 Grammar Overview ............................................ 92
3.1 Basic units: word and clause ........................... 92
3.2 The clause ............................................. 93
3.3 The two major word classes, Noun and Verb ............. 102
3.4 Phrases ............................................... 106
3.5 Clause structure and word classes ..................... 110
3.6 Adjectives ............................................ 112
3.7 Pronouns, demonstratives, and interrogatives .......... 114
3.8 Syntactic specification of space and time ............. 118
3.9 Marking of core and peripheral arguments .............. 122
3.10 Complement clauses .................................... 128
3.11 The sentence .......................................... 132
3.12 Negation .............................................. 137
3.13 Morphology ............................................ 138
3.14 Derivations ........................................... 149
3.15 Non-spatial setting ................................... 152
3.16 Noun classes and genders, and classifiers ............. 155
3.17 Number systems ........................................ 158
3.18 Definiteness .......................................... 160
3.19 Dependencies between grammatical systems .............. 162
3.20 Changing valency ...................................... 165
3.21 Topic and pivot ....................................... 171
3.22 Argument identity: reflexives and reciprocals ......... 175
3.23 Comparative constructions 177 Sources and notes ....... 179
4 Analysis, Argumentation, and Explanation ................... 182
4.1 What is linguistic analysis? .......................... 182
4.2 Analyses should be clear and plausible ................ 184
4.3 Argumentation needed to justify an analysis ........... 186
4.4 Choosing between alternative analyses ................. 191
4.5 Different analyses for varying purposes ............... 194
4.6 Different analyses of similar data .................... 196
4.7 Intertwining of levels ................................ 199
4.8 Encountering the unexpected ........................... 201
4.9 Explanation ........................................... 205
Sources and notes .......................................... 213
5 Terminology ................................................ 214
5.1 Grammar and lexicon ................................... 214
5.2 Morphology ............................................ 217
5.3 Inflection and derivation ............................. 218
5.4 Clitic, affix, and adposition ......................... 221
5.5 Morphological types ................................... 226
5.6 Syntax ................................................ 228
5.7 Markedness ............................................ 235
Sources and notes .......................................... 240
6 Doing Typology ............................................. 242
6.1 Requirement for consistent analysis ................... 243
6.2 What should be compared ............................... 247
6.3 Phonological typology ................................. 249
6.4 Grammatical typology .................................. 251
6.5 Lexical typology ...................................... 255
6.6 The question of sampling .............................. 257
Sources and notes .......................................... 261
7 Phonology .................................................. 264
7.1 Phonemes .............................................. 264
7.2 Consonants ............................................ 266
7.3 Vowels ................................................ 273
7.4 Phonotactics and syllables ............................ 275
7.5 Prosodies ............................................. 279
7.6 Stress ................................................ 280
7.7 Balancing parsimony and clarity ....................... 283
7.8 Orthography ........................................... 286
Sources and notes ..................................... 287
8 Lexicon .................................................... 289
8.1 Organizing the lexicon ................................ 291
8.2 Constructing a lexicon ................................ 296
8.3 Structure of the lexicon .............................. 300
8.3.1 Nouns .......................................... 302
8.3.2 Adjectives ..................................... 304
8.3.3 Verbs 305 Sources and notes .................... 307
9 Field Linguistics .......................................... 309
9.1 The fundamentals ...................................... 309
9.1.1 What is linguistic fieldwork? .................. 309
9.1.2 Why do it? ..................................... 309
9.1.3 Poor reasons for doing fieldwork ............... 310
9.2 Getting started ....................................... 311
9.2.1 The ethics of fieldwork ........................ 311
9.2.2 How to choose a language ....................... 311
9.2.3 Fieldwork locations ............................ 314
9.3 Working in the field .................................. 315
9.3.1 How to do it ................................... 315
9.3.2 What to get .................................... 318
9.3.3 What to do ..................................... 320
9.3.4 Other fieldwork situations ..................... 325
9.4 Making sure you have it right ......................... 326
9.5 What not to do ........................................ 326
Appendix 1 Describing the fieldwork situation .............. 328
Appendix 2 Planning a fieldwork PhD ........................ 329
Appendix 3 Field methods courses ........................... 329
Note ....................................................... 330
Glossary ...................................................... 331
References .................................................... 345
Combined indices for Volumes 1, 2, and 3
Author Index .................................................. 359
Language Index ................................................ 371
Subject Index ................................................. 384
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