Dedication ...................................................... v
Preface ....................................................... vii
Acknowledgments ................................................ xi
1 PASSIVE WIRELESS MICROSYSTEMS ................................ 1
1.1 The Spectrum ............................................ 2
1.2 The Challenges .......................................... 2
1.2.1 Efficiency of Radio-Frequency Power Harvest ...... 3
1.2.2 Fluctuating Supply Voltage ....................... 3
1.2.3 Sensitivity to Changing Environment .............. 4
1.2.4 Precision Voltage References ..................... 4
1.2.5 Ultra-Low Power Analog-to-Digital Converters ..... 5
1.2.6 Encryption and Authentication .................... 5
1.2.7 Signal Collision ................................. 5
1.2.8 Dimension of Antennas ............................ 6
2 RADIO-FREQUENCY POWER HARVEST ................................ 7
2.1 Characterization of Radio-Frequency Power Harvest ....... 8
2.1.1 Power Matching ................................... 8
2.1.2 Power Efficiency ................................ 10
2.2 Voltage Multipliers .................................... 11
2.2.1 Voltage Doubler ................................. 12
2.2.2 Cockcroft-Walton Voltage Multiplier ............. 13
2.2.3 Dickson Voltage Multipliers ..................... 13
2.2.4 Modified Dickson Voltage Multipliers ............ 16
2.2.5 Mandal-Sarpeshkar Voltage Multiplier ............ 17
2.2.6 Voltage Multiplier with VT-Cancellation ......... 18
2.2.7 Bergeret Voltage Multiplier ..................... 20
2.2.1 Power-Matching and Gain-Boosting Using LC
Tanks ........................................... 21
2.4 Power-Matching and Gain-Boosting Using Transformers .... 32
2.5 Chapter summary ........................................ 45
3 DATA ENCODING ............................................... 49
3.1 Non-Return-to-Zero Encoding ............................ 51
3.2 Return-to-Zero Encoding ................................ 52
3.3 Manchester Encoding .................................... 53
3.4 Miller Encoding ........................................ 54
3.5 Miller-Modulated Sub-carrier Encoding .................. 55
3.6 FMO Encoding ........................................... 56
3.7 Pulse Interval Encoding ................................ 56
3.8 Chapter Summary ........................................ 57
4. MODULATORS AND DEMODULATORS ............................. 61
4.1 Basic Modulation Schemes ............................... 62
4.1.1 Amplitude Shift Keying .......................... 62
4.1.2 Frequency Shift Keying .......................... 64
4.1.3 Phase Shift Keying .............................. 66
4.2 ASK Modulators and Demodulators ........................ 66
4.2.1 ASK Modulators .................................. 67
4.2.2 Classification of ASK Demodulators .............. 67
4.2.3 Design Challenges of ASK Demodulators ........... 68
4.2.4 Voltage-Mode ASK Demodulators ................... 78
4.2.5 Current-Mode ASK Demodulators ................... 85
4.2.6 Mixed-Mode ASK Demodulators ..................... 87
4.2.7 Performance Comparison of ASK Demodulators ...... 94
4.3 FSK Modulators and Demodulator ......................... 94
4.3.1 FSK Modulators .................................. 96
4.3.2 Ghovanloo-Najafi FSK Demodulator ................ 97
4.3.3 Jung FSK Demodulator ............................ 98
4.3.4 Weng FSK Demodulator ........................... 100
4.3.5 Performance Comparison of FSK Demodulators ..... 102
4.4 PSK Modulators and Demodulators ....................... 102
4.4.1 PSK Modulators ................................. 103
4.4.2 Coherent BPSK Demodulators ..................... 104
4.4.3 Non-Coherent BPSK Demodulators ................. 109
4.4.4 Performance Comparison of PSK Demodulators ..... 112
4.5 Chapter Summary ....................................... 113
5 LOW-POWER PRECISION VOLTAGE REFERENCES ..................... 117
5.1 Characterization of Voltage References ................ 117
5.1.1 Temperature Coefficient ........................ 118
5.1.2 Power Supply Rejection Ratio ................... 119
5.1.3 Minimum Supply Voltage ......................... 119
5.2 Temperature Characteristics of MOS Devices ............ 120
5.2.1 Base-Emitter Voltage of ВJTs ................... 120
5.2.2 Threshold Voltage of MOSFETs ................... 127
5.2.3 Gate-Source Voltage of MOSFETs in Weak
Inversion ...................................... 128
5.2.4 Resistance of Diffusion and Poly Resistors ..... 132
5.2.5 PTAT Voltage/Current Generators ................ 133
5.2.6 Zero-Temperature-Coefficient Bias Point ........ 135
5.3 First-Order Voltage References ........................ 136
5.3.1 Widlar Voltage Reference ....................... 138
5.3.2 Banba Voltage Reference ........................ 141
5.3.3 Waltari-Halonen Voltage Reference .............. 142
5.3.4 Jiang-Lee Voltage Reference .................... 143
5.3.5 Threshold Voltage Based Voltage References ..... 144
5.3.6 Buck Voltage Reference ......................... 146
5.3.7 Comparison of First-Order Voltage References ... 148
5.4 High-Order Voltage References ......................... 149
5.4.1 Piecewise-Linear Voltage Reference ............. 150
5.4.2 Malcovati Voltage Reference .................... 150
5.4.3 Resistor Curvature-Compensated Voltage
Reference ...................................... 153
5.4.4 Ker-Chen Voltage Reference ..................... 155
5.4.5 Comparison of High-Order Voltage References .... 157
5.5 Sub-threshold Voltage References ...................... 157
5.5.1 Ytterdal Voltage Reference ..................... 158
5.5.2 Cheng-Wu Voltage Reference ..................... 160
5.5.3 Huang Voltage Reference ........................ 161
5.5.4 Ueno Voltage Reference ......................... 163
5.5.5 De Vita - Iannaccone Voltage Reference ......... 164
5.5.6 Sub-threshold Voltage References Without
Amplifiers ..................................... 166
5.5.7 Comparison of Sub-Threshold Voltage
References ..................................... 169
5.6 Chapter Summary ....................................... 170
6 CLOCK GENERATION AND CALIBRATION ........................... 173
6.1 Clock Generation From Carrier ......................... 174
6.2 Clock Generation From Envelope ........................ 177
6.3 Clock Generation Using Carrier Injection-Locking ...... 179
6.4 Clock Generation Using Digital Trimming ............... 181
6.5 Clock Generation Using Phase-Locked Loops ............. 183
6.6 Clock Generation Using Frequency-Locked Loop .......... 185
6.7 Clock Generation Using Envelope Injection-Locking ..... 186
6.8 Performance Comparison ................................ 198
6.9 Chapter Summary ....................................... 198
7 LOW-POWER ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERTERS ..................... 201
7.1 Fundamentals of Analog-to-Digital Converters .......... 202
7.1.1 Quantization Error ............................. 203
7.1.2 Offset Error ................................... 205
7.1.3 Gain Error ..................................... 205
7.1.4 Differential Nonlinearity ...................... 205
7.1.5 Integral Nonlinearity .......................... 206
7.1.6 Dynamic Range .................................. 206
7.1.7 Signal-to-Noise Ratio .......................... 208
7.1.8 Signal-to-Noise-and-Distortion Ratio ........... 208
7.1.9 Effective Number of Bits ....................... 209
7.2 Integrating ADCs ...................................... 209
7.2.1 Single-Slope Integrating ADCs .................. 209
7.2.2 Dual-Slope Integrating ADCs ................... 211
7.3 Oscillator-Based Temperature ADCs ..................... 213
7.3.1 Relaxation Oscillator-Based Temperature ADCs ... 213
7.3.2 Ring Oscillator-Based Temperature ADCs ......... 215
7.4 Time-to-Digital Converter Based Temperature ADCs ...... 219
7.5 Frequency-to-Digital Converter Based Temperature
ADCs .................................................. 223
7.6 Charge Redistribution Successive Approximation ADCs ... 223
7.6.1 Charge-Scaling DACs . .......................... 224
7.6.2 Accuracy of Charge-Scaling DACs ................ 228
7.6.3 Charge Redistribution ADCs ..................... 230
7.6.4 Single-Stage Binary-Weighted Capacitor
Arrays ..........................................233
7.6.5 Two-Stage Binary-Weighted Capacitor Array ...... 235
7.6.6 C-2C Capacitor Arrays .......................... 245
7.6.7 Switching Network .............................. 251
7.6.8 Hybrid Charge-Scaling DACs ..................... 252
7.6.9 Multi-Stage Charge-Scaling DACs ................ 252
7.7 Performance Comparison ................................ 253
7.8 Chapter Summary ....................................... 255
Appendices
A Material and Physical Constants ......................... 257
References .................................................... 259
Index ......................................................... 275
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