Practical handbook of photovoltaics: fundamentals and applications / ed. by A.McEvoy, T.Markvart, L.Castañer. - 2nd ed. - Waltham: Academic Press, 2012. - xxiv, 1244 p.: ill. - Incl. bibl. ref. - Ind.: p.1189-1244. - ISBN 978-0-12-385934-1  Место хранения:   026 | Институт физики полупроводников СО РАН | Новосибирск | Библиотека

Оглавление / Contents

Preface to the Second Edition .................................. xv Preface to the First Edition .................................. xjx List of Contributors ........................................... xx Introduction .................................................... 1 Part IA: Solar Cells IA-1. Principles of Solar Cell Operation ....................... 7 T. Markvart and L. Castaсer 1 Introduction ................................................. 7 2 Electrical Characteristics .................................. 10 3 Optical Properties .......................................... 16 4 Typical Solar Cell Structures ............................... 19 IA-2. Semiconductor Materials and Modelling .................... 33 T. Markvart and L. Castaсer 1 Introduction ................................................ 33 2 Semiconductor Band Structure ................................ 34 3 Carrier Statistics in Semiconductors ........................ 38 4 The Transport Equations ..................................... 40 5 Carrier Mobility ............................................ 44 6 Carrier Generation by Optical Absorption .................... 44 7 Recombination ............................................... 48 8 Radiation Damage ............................................ 53 9 Heavy Doping Effects ........................................ 55 10 Properties of Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon ............... 57 Acknowledgements ............................................... 59 IA-3. Ideal Efficiencies ....................................... 63 P.T. Landsberg and T. Markvart 1 Introduction ................................................ 63 2 Thermodynamic Efficiencies .................................. 64 3 Efficiencies in Terms of Energies ........................... 65 4 Efficiencies Using the Shockley Solar Cell Equation ......... 67 5 General Comments on Efficiencies ............................ 72 Part IB: Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells IB-1. Crystalline Silicon: Manufacture and Properties .......... 79 F. Ferrazza 1 Introduction ................................................ 79 2 Characteristics of Silicon Wafers for Use in PV Manufacturing ............................................... 80 3 Feedstock Silicon ........................................... 86 4 Crystal-Preparation Methods ................................. 87 5 Shaping and Wafering ........................................ 94 IB-2. High-Efficiency Silicon Solar Cell Concepts .............. 99 M.A. Green 1 Introduction ............................................... 100 2 High-Efficiency Laboratory Cells ........................... 100 3 Screen-Printed Cells ....................................... 111 4 Laser-Processed Cells ...................................... 116 5 HIT Cell ................................................... 120 6 Rear-Contacted Cells ....................................... 121 7 Conclusions ................................................ 124 Acknowledgements .............................................. 125 IB-3. Low-Cost Industrial Technologies for Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells ........................................... 129 J. Szlufcik, S. Sivoththaman, J. Nijs, R.P. Mertens and R. Van Overstraeten 1 Introduction ............................................... 130 2 Cell Processing ............................................ 131 3 Industrial Solar Cell Technologies ......................... 145 4 Cost of Commercial Photovoltaic Modules .................... 152 IB-4. Thin Silicon Solar Cells ................................ 161 M. Mauk, P. Sims, J. Rand and A. Barnett 1 Introduction, Background, and Scope of Review .............. 162 2 Light Trapping in Thin Silicon Solar Cells ................. 165 3 Voltage Enhancements in Thin Silicon Solar Cells ........... 174 4 Silicon Deposition and Crystal Growth for Thin Solar Cells ...................................................... 179 5 Thin Silicon Solar Cells Based on Substrate Thinning ....... 188 6 Summary of Device Results .................................. 190 Part IС: Thin Film Technologies IC-1. Thin-Film Silicon Solar Cells ........................... 209 A. Shah 1 Introduction ............................................... 210 2 Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon (a-Si:H) Layers ............. 215 3 Hydrogenated Microcrystalline Silicon (jic-Si:H) Layers .... 225 4 Functioning of Thin-Film Silicon Solar Cells with p-i-n and n-i-p Structures ....................................... 234 5 Tandem and Multijunction Solar Cells ....................... 252 6 Module Production and Performance .......................... 259 7 Conclusions ................................................ 273 IC-2. CdTe Thin-Film PV Modules ............................... 283 D. Bonnet 1 Introduction ............................................... 284 2 Steps for Making Thin-Film CdTe Solar Cells ................ 285 3 Making of Integrated Modules ............................... 303 4 Production of CdTe Thin-Film Modules ....................... 306 5 The Product and Its Application ............................ 316 6 The Future ................................................. 320 IC-3. Cu(ln,Ga)Se2 Thin-Film Solar Cells ...................... 323 U. Ran and H.W. Schock 1 Introduction ............................................... 324 2 Material Properties ........................................ 325 3 Cell and Module Technology ................................. 331 4 Device Physics ............................................. 346 5 Wide-Gap Chalcopyrites ..................................... 354 6 Conclusions ................................................ 361 Acknowledgements .............................................. 362 IC-4. Progress in Chalcopyrite Compound Semiconductor Research for Photovoltaic Applications and Transfer of Results into Actual Solar Cell Production ..................... 373 A. Jаger-Waldau 1 Introduction ............................................... 374 2 Research Directions ........................................ 375 3 Industrialisation .......................................... 379 4 Conclusions and Outlook .................................... 390 Part ID: Space and Concentrator Cells ID-1. GaAs and High-Efficiency Space Cells ................... 399 V.M. Andreev 1 Historical Review of lll-V Solar Cells ..................... 399 2 Single-Junction III—V Space Solar Cells .................... 403 3 Multifunction Space Solar Cells ............................ 407 Acknowledgements .............................................. 412 ID-2. High-Efficiency lll-V Multijunction Solar Cells ........ 417 S.P. Philipps, F. Dimroth and A.W. Bett 1 Introduction ............................................... 417 2 Special Aspects lll-V Multijunction Solar Cells ............ 419 3 Ill—V Solar Cell Concepts .................................. 427 4 Conclusions ................................................ 440 Acknowledgements .............................................. 440 ID-3. High-Efficiency Back-Contact Silicon Solar Cells for One-Sun and Concentrator Applications ......................... 449 P.J. Verlinden 1 Introduction ............................................... 449 2 Concentrator Applications of IBC Solar Cells ............... 450 3 Back-Contact Silicon Solar Cells ........................... 453 4 Modelling of Back-Contact Solar Cells ...................... 458 5 Perimeter and Edge Recombination ........................... 462 6 Manufacturing Process for Back-Contact Solar Cells ......... 464 7 Stability of Back-Contact Cells ............................ 464 8 Toward 30% Efficiency Silicon Cells ........................ 467 9 How to Improve the Efficiency of Back-Contact Solar Cells .. 468 10 Conclusions ................................................ 472 Acknowledgements .............................................. 473 Part IE: Dye-Sensitized and Organic Solar Cells IE-1. Dye-Sensitized Photoelectrochemical Cells ............... 479 A. Hagfeldt, U.B. Cappel, G. Boschloo, L. Sun, L. Kloo, H. Pettersson and E.A. Gibson 1 Introduction ............................................... 480 2 Photoelectrochemical Cells ................................. 483 3 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells ................................. 496 4 Future Outlook ............................................. 536 IE-2. Organic Solar Cells ..................................... 543 C. Dyer-Smith and J. Nelson 1 Introduction ............................................... 544 2 Organic Electronic Materials ............................... 544 3 Principles of Device Operation ............................. 548 4 Optimising Solar Cell Performance .......................... 552 5 Production Issues .......................................... 559 6 Conclusions ................................................ 563 Part IIA: Photovoltaic Systems IIA-1. The Role of Solar-Radiation Climatology in the Design of Photovoltaic Systems ................................ 573 J. Page 1 Introduction ............................................... 575 2 Key Features of the Radiation Climatology in Various Parts of the World ......................................... 577 3 Quantitative Processing of Solar Radiation for Photovoltaic Design ........................................ 605 4 The Stochastic Generation of Solar-Radiation Data .......... 610 5 Computing the Solar Geometry ............................... 618 6 The Estimation of Hourly Global and Diffuse Horizontal Irradiation ................................................ 627 7 The Estimation of the All Sky Irradiation on Inclined Planes from Hourly Time Series of Horizontal Irradiation ... 632 8 Conclusion ................................................. 637 Acknowledgements .............................................. 638 Appendix Solar Energy Data for Selected Sites ................. 642 IIA-2. Energy Production by a PV Array ........................ 645 L. Castaсer, S. Bermejo, T. Markvart and K. Fragaki 1 Annual Energy Production ................................... 645 2 Peak Solar Hours: Concept, Definition, and Illustration .... 646 3 Nominal Array Power ........................................ 648 4 Temperature Dependence of Array Power Output ............... 650 5 Module Orientation ......................................... 651 6 Statistical Analysis of the Energy Production .............. 653 7 Mismatch Losses and Blocking/Bypass Diodes ................. 655 Acknowledgement ............................................... 658 IIA-3. Energy Balance in Stand-Alone Systems .................. 659 L. Castaсer, S. Bermejo, T. Markvart and K. Fragaki 1 Introduction ............................................... 659 2 Load Description ........................................... 663 3 Seasonal Energy Balance .................................... 668 IIA-4. Review of System Design and Sizing Tools ............... 673 S. Silvestre 1 Introduction ............................................... 673 2 Stand-Alone PV Systems Sizing .............................. 674 3 Grid-Connected PV Systems .................................. 681 4 PV System Design and Sizing Tools .......................... 684 Part IIB: Balance-of-system Components IIB-1. System Electronics ..................................... 697 J.N. Ross 1 Introduction ............................................... 697 2 DC to DC Power Conversion .................................. 698 3 DC to AC Power Conversion (Inversion) ...................... 703 4 Stand-Alone PV Systems ..................................... 708 5 PV Systems Connected to the Local Electricity Utility ...... 714 6 Available Products and Practical Considerations ............ 715 7 Electromagnetic Compatibility .............................. 718 IIB-2. Batteries in PV Systems ................................ 721 D. Spiers 1 Introduction ............................................... 722 2 What Is a Battery? ......................................... 723 3 Why Use a Battery in PV Systems? ........................... 724 4 Battery Duty Cycle in PV Systems ........................... 726 5 The Battery as a 'Black Box' ............................... 727 6 The Battery as a Complex Electrochemical System ............ 737 7 Types of Battery Used in PV Systems ........................ 740 8 Lead-Acid Batteries ........................................ 741 9 Nickel-Cadmium Batteries ................................... 754 10 How Long Will the Battery Last in a PV System? ............. 756 11 Selecting the Best Battery for a PV Application ............ 765 12 Calculating Battery Size for a PV System ................... 767 13 Looking After the Battery Properly ......................... 770 14 Summary and Conclusions .................................... 774 Acknowledgements .............................................. 775 Part IIС: Grid-Connected Systems IIC-1. Grid-Connection of PV Generators: Technical and Regulatory Issues ............................................. 779 J. Thornycroft and T. Markvart 1 Introduction ............................................... 780 2 Principal Integration Issues ............................... 783 3 Inverter Structure and Operating Principles ................ 784 4 Islanding .................................................. 785 5 Regulatory Issues .......................................... 789 Acknowledgements .............................................. 803 IIC-2. Installation Guidelines: Construction .................. 805 B. Cross 1 Roofs ...................................................... 806 2 Facades .................................................... 811 3 Ground-Mounted Systems ..................................... 817 IIC-3. Installation Guidelines: Electrical .................... 819 M. Cotterell 1 Introduction ............................................... 820 2 Codes and Regulations ...................................... 820 3 DC Ratings (Array Voltage and Current Maxima) .............. 821 4 Device Ratings and Component Selection ..................... 823 5 Array Fault Protection ..................................... 824 6 Earthing Arrangements ...................................... 830 7 Protection by Design ....................................... 832 8 Labelling .................................................. 834 Part IID: Space and Concentrator Systems IID-1. Concentrator Systems ................................... 837 G. Sala 1 Objectives of PV Concentration ............................. 837 2 Physical Principles of PV Concentration .................... 839 3 Description of a Typical Concentrator: Components and Operation .................................................. 843 4 Classification of Concentrator Systems ..................... 845 5 Tracking-Control Strategies ................................ 851 6 Applications of С Systems .................................. 854 7 Rating and Specification of PV Systems ..................... 854 8 Energy Produced by а С System .............................. 859 9 The Future of Concentrators ................................ 860 IID-2. Operation of Solar Cells in a Space Environment ........ 863 S. Bailey and R. Rafaelle 1 Introduction ............................................... 863 2 Space Missions and their Environments ...................... 865 3 Space Solar Cells .......................................... 872 4 Small Power Systems ........................................ 875 5 Large Power Systems ........................................ 877 IID-3. Calibration, Testing and Monitoring of Space Solar Cells ......................................................... 881 E. Fernandez Lisbona 1 Introduction ............................................... 882 2 Calibration of Solar Cells ................................. 883 3 Testing of Space Solar Cells and Arrays .................... 886 4 Monitoring of Space Solar Cells and Arrays ................. 895 Acknowledgements .............................................. 908 Part IIE: Case Studies IIE-1. Architectural Integration of Solar Cells ............... 917 R. Serra i Florensa and R. Leal Cueva 1 Introduction ............................................... 918 2 Architectural Possibilities for PV Technology .............. 919 3 Building-Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPVs) .................. 923 4 Aesthetics in PV Technology ................................ 926 5 Built Examples ............................................. 934 IIE-2. Solar Parks and Solar Farms ............................ 943 P.R. Wolfe 1 What Is a Solar Park? ...................................... 944 2 Design Issues for Solar Parks .............................. 946 3 Solar Park Project Development Issues ...................... 953 4 Regulatory Issues for Solar Parks .......................... 959 5 The End Game ............................................... 960 Acknowledgements .............................................. 962 IIE-3. Performance, Reliability, and User Experience .......... 963 U. Jahn 1 Operational Performance Results ............................ 964 2 Trends in Long-Term Performance and Reliability ............ 972 3 User Experience ............................................ 978 Acknowledgements .............................................. 982 Appendix. Specifications of Performance Database of IEA PVPS .......................................................... 983 IIE-4. Solar-Powered Products ................................. 987 P.R. Wolfe 1 The Genesis of Solar-Powered Products ...................... 988 2 Stand-Alone Consumer Products .............................. 989 3 Solar Products for Grid Connection ........................ 1001 4 Nonconsumer Products ...................................... 1003 5 Designing PV for Products ................................. 1004 6 Solar Products of the Future .............................. 1006 Acknowledgements ............................................. 1007 Part III: Testing, Monitoring, and Calibration III-1. Characterization and Diagnosis of Silicon Wafers, Ingots, and Solar Cells ...................................... 1011 A. Cuevas, D. Macdonald, R.A. Sinton 1 Introduction .............................................. 1012 2 Factors Affecting Carrier Recombination ................... 1012 3 Measurement of the Minority-Carrier Lifetime .............. 1015 4 Relationship Between Device Voltage and Carrier Lifetime .. 1030 5 Applications to Process Monitoring and Control of Silicon Solar Cells ....................................... 1031 6 Conclusions ............................................... 1040 Acknowledgements ............................................. 1040 III-2. Standards, Calibration, and Testing of PV Modules and Solar Cells .............................................. 1045 C.R. Osterwald 1 PV Performance Measurements ............................... 1046 2 Diagnostic Measurements ................................... 1054 3 Commercial Equipment ...................................... 1056 4 Module Reliability and Qualification Testing .............. 1057 5 Module Degradation Case Study ............................. 1061 Acknowledgments .............................................. 1063 III-33. PV System Monitoring ................................. 1071 B. Cross 1 Introduction .............................................. 1071 2 Equipment ................................................. 1073 3 Calibration and Recalibration ............................. 1075 4 Data Storage and Transmission ............................. 1076 5 Monitoring Regimes ........................................ 1076 Part IV: Environment and Health IV-1. Overview of Potential Hazards .......................... 1083 V.M. Fthenakis 1 Introduction .............................................. 1083 2 Overview of Hazards in PV Manufacture ..................... 1084 3 Crystalline Silicon (x-Si) Solar Cells .................... 1084 4 Amorphous Silicon (a-Si) Solar Cells ...................... 1088 5 Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) Solar Cells ...................... 1089 6 Copper Indium Diselenide (CIS) Solar Cells ................ 1090 7 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) High-Efficiency Solar Cells ....... 1092 8 Operation of PV Modules ................................... 1093 9 Photovoltaic Module Decommissioning ....................... 1094 10 Conclusion ................................................ 1095 IV-2. Energy Payback Time and C02 Emissions of PV Systems .... 1097 E. Alsema 1 Introduction .............................................. 1097 2 Energy Analysis Methodology ............................... 1099 3 Energy Requirements of PV Systems ......................... 1100 4 Energy Balance of PV Systems .............................. 1105 5 Outlook for Future PV Systems ............................. 1107 6 CO2 Emissions ............................................. 1112 7 Conclusions ............................................... 1114 APPENDICES Appendix A Constants, Physical Quantities and Conversion Factors ................................................... 1121 Appendix В List of Principal Symbols ........................ 1123 Appendix С Abbreviations and Acronyms ....................... 1131 Appendix D The Photovoltaic Market .......................... 1137 Appendix E The Photovoltaic Industrty ....................... 1153 Appendix F Useful Web Sites and Journals .................... 1173 Appendix G International Standards With Relevance to Photovoltaics ............................................. 1177 Appendix H Books About Solar Cells, Photovoltaic Systems, and Applications .......................................... 1185 Index ........................................................ 1189