Acknowledgments ................................................. 6
Abbreviations, symbols and conventions ......................... 24
0 The Forest Enets language and its remaining speakers ...... 30
0.1 Remaining speakers of Forest Enets and their territorial
distribution .............................................. 30
0.2 Materials on Forest Enets - prologue ...................... 31
0.3 Materials on Forest Enets vs. Sorokina's Enetskij jazyk
(2010b) ................................................... 33
0.4 Genetic affiliation ....................................... 35
0.5 Forest Enets and its linguistic neighbors ................. 36
0.6 Enetses among Taimyrian indigenous peoples ................ 38
0.7 How many Enetses are left? ................................ 38
0.7.1 The ethnonym "Enets"and its origin ................. 38
0.7.2 Census data on Enetses ............................. 39
0.7.3 How many Forest Enetses are left? .................. 39
0.8 Forest Enetses in early historical accounts ............... 40
0.9 Traditional Forest Enets culture .......................... 41
0.9.1 Reindeer breeding, foraging, and traditional diet .. 42
0.9.2 Traditional clothing ............................... 43
0.9.3 Traditional way of life ............................ 43
0.9.4 Social organization ................................ 44
0.9.5 Religion and taboo ................................. 44
0.9.6 Warfare ............................................ 45
0.10 The advent of Communism on the Taimyr Peninsula ........... 47
0.10.1 Early Forest Enets supporters of Communism ......... 47
0.10.2 The Volochanka uprising in 1932 .................... 48
0.11 Recent history - how Forest Enets ultimately became
an endangered language .................................... 48
0.11.1 Assimilation and homogenization in Potapovo ........ 51
0.11.1.1 The role of the boarding school .......... 52
0.11.1.2 Loss of marriage rules and new
interethnic marriages .................... 52
0.11.1.3 New ways of living ....................... 53
0.11.2 The outcome of assimilation ........................ 54
0.11.3 Geography for good and worse ....................... 55
0.11.4 The fate of a village as the fate of a language .... 56
0.11.5 Potapovo today ..................................... 56
0.12 Previous research ......................................... 57
0.12.1 Enets in M.A. Castren's work ....................... 57
0.12.2 Other Finnish researchers among the Enetses ........ 58
0.12.3 Enets studies by Soviet and Russian researchers .... 58
0.12.3.1 Enets studies by linguists from
Leningrad and Tomsk ....................... 59
0.12.3.2 Enets studies by Moscow-based
researchers ............................... 60
0.12.3.3 Local efforts by Kazys Labanauskas ........ 60
0.12.4 Insitute of the People of the North ................ 60
0.12.5 Enets studies outside Russia ....................... 61
0.13 Some pitfalls of recent publications on Enets ............. 61
0.14 Primary language data on Enets ............................ 61
0.14.1 Materials published in recent years ................ 62
0.14.2 Primary materials published on Forest Enets
before 1995 ........................................ 62
0.14.3 A note on unpublished data on Enets ................ 63
0.15 Generational variation in existing data ................... 64
0.16 Intergenerational language change ......................... 65
1 A typological profile of Forest Enets ..................... 67
1.1 Nominal morphology and its morphosyntax ................... 67
1.1.1 Nouns - case, possession, and grammatical
relations .......................................... 67
1.1.2 Adjectives ......................................... 71
1.1.3 Pronouns ........................................... 73
1.2 Verbal morphology and its morphosyntax .................... 74
1.2.1 Verbal endings ..................................... 74
1.2.2 T-A-M-E ............................................ 75
1.2.3 Standard negation of verbal predicates ............. 76
1.2.4 Non-finite verb forms .............................. 76
1.2.5 Verbally conjugated nominals in predicative
position ........................................... 77
1.2.6 Valency-decreasing and valency-increasing
operations ......................................... 77
1.3 Syntax .................................................... 78
2 Phonetics and Phonology ................................... 82
2.1 Phoneme inventory ......................................... 82
2.2 Palatalization and distribution of palatal consonants ..... 83
2.3 Consonants ................................................ 84
2.3.1 Oral stops ......................................... 84
2.3.2 The glottal stop ................................... 87
2.3.3 Nasal stops ........................................ 89
2.3.4 Fricatives ......................................... 90
2.3.5 Approximant ........................................ 91
2.3.6 Trills and laterals ................................ 92
2.4 Vowel phonemes, their allophones and distribution ......... 93
2.4.1 High vowels [i], [u] ............................... 93
2.4.2 Close mid [e], [o] ................................. 93
2.4.3 Open mid [ɛ] ....................................... 94
2.4.4 Low back [α] ....................................... 94
2.5 Diphthongs ................................................ 94
2.6 Vowels and their allophones ............................... 95
2.6.1 The status of [ɔ] .................................. 95
2.6.2 [u] and [o] ........................................ 96
2.6.3 [ə] and [e] ........................................ 96
2.7 Quantity .................................................. 96
2.7.1 Long vowels ........................................ 96
2.7.2 Long vowels in non-initial syllables ............... 97
2.7.3 Long vowels triggered by morphonology .............. 97
2.7.4 Long consonants .................................... 97
2.8 Relicts of gemination ..................................... 97
2.9 Syllable structure and phonotactics ....................... 98
2.9.1 Syllable structure - general remarks ............... 98
2.9.2 Syllable types ..................................... 98
2.9.3 Phonotactics ....................................... 99
2.9.3.1 Distribution of consonant phonemes ........ 99
2.9.3.2 Distribution of vowel phonemes ........... 100
2.9.3.3 Intervocalic consonant cluster ........... 100
2.10 Criteria for wordhood .................................... 102
2.11 Stress ................................................... 102
2.12 Morphonology ............................................. 102
2.12.1 Morphonological alternations excluding /?/ ........ 103
2.12.1.1 Vowel assimilation in LOG.SG and ABL.SG .. 103
2.12.1.2 Epenthetic vowel insertion ............... 103
2.12.1.3 PX of the genitive series and
epenthetic vowel insertion ............... 103
2.12.2 /i/ and morphonology .............................. 104
2.12.2.1 Vowel deletion of final /а/ .............. 104
2.12.2.2 Shortening of long vowels before /i/ ..... 104
2.12.2.3 Assimilation of /i/ before rounded
vowels in polysyllabic words ............. 105
2.12.2.4 Assimilation of /i/ and vowel deletion
in monosyllabic words .................... 105
2.12.2.5 Mid-vowels and assimilation of /i/ in
polysyllabic words ....................... 106
2.12.2.6 Assimilation of /i/ + /i/ → /i/ .......... 106
2.12.2.7 Morphophonemic palatalization before
/i/ ...................................... 106
2.12.3 Morphonological processes including the glottal
stop .............................................. 107
2.12.3.1 Phonological fusion ...................... 107
2.12.3.2 Allomorphy triggered by the glottal
stop ..................................... 108
2.12.3.3 Alternations triggered by the glottal
stop and how to predict them ............. 108
2.13 A note on rule ordering .................................. 108
2.14 A note on loanword phonology ............................. 109
2.14.1 Tundra Nenets loanwords ........................... 109
2.14.2 Borrowings from Russian ........................... 109
2.15 Forest Enets in Cyrillic orthography ..................... 110
3 Morphonology and Morphology .............................. 111
3.1 Inflectional categories - a condensed overview ........... 111
3.2 Morphological Processes .................................. 111
3.2.1 Notes on compounding .............................. 112
3.2.2 Suppletion ........................................ 114
3.3 Realization-based morphology-the role of paradigms ....... 114
3.3.1 Inflectional macro-classes ........................ 115
3.3.2 Morphonology and the glottal stop ................. 116
3.3.2.1 The history of the glottal stop .......... 117
3.3.2.2 Assimilation processes triggered by the
glottal stop ............................. 118
3.3.2.3 Simple assimilation (double allomorphy) .. 118
3.3.2.4 Two-way assimilation (triple
allomorphy) .............................. 119
3.3.2.5 Diagnostic cells ......................... 119
3.4 Nouns and their inflectional classes ..................... 121
3.4.1 Stem distribution in noun inflection .............. 121
3.4.1.1 Class I .................................. 122
3.4.1.2 Class II nouns ........................... 122
3.4.1.2.1 Class IIa ..................... 122
3.4.1.2.2 Class IIb ..................... 123
3.4.1.2.3 Unclassified nouns ending in
a glottal stop ................ 124
3.5 Possessive nominal inflection ............................ 124
3.5.1 px nominative series .............................. 125
3.5.2 px genitive series ................................ 125
3.5.3 px accusative series .............................. 125
3.5.4 px allomorphy in 1st person nom and acc ........... 126
3.5.5 px and stem extension with several kinship terms .. 126
3.5.6 px and cx-overlapping and plural neutralization ... 127
3.5.7 px and non-core grammatical cases ................. 127
3.6 Verbs and their inflectional classes ..................... 128
3.6.1 Class I ........................................... 129
3.6.2 Class II .......................................... 129
3.6.2.1 Class IIa ................................ 130
3.6.2.2 Class IIb ................................ 131
3.6.3 Regularity and irregularity in the verbal
paradigm .......................................... 131
3.6.3.1 Irregular verbs .......................... 132
3.6.3.2 Defective verbs .......................... 132
3.6.3.2.1 Verbs restricted to 3P
contexts ...................... 132
3.6.3.3 Verbs with individual gaps in their
paradigm ................................. 133
3.7 Morpheme ordering principles ............................. 133
3.7.1 Nouns ............................................. 133
3.7.2 Verbs ............................................. 134
3.8 -nuju derivation and morphonology ................... 134
4 Parts of speech .......................................... 135
4.1 An inventory of parts of speech .......................... 135
4.2 Criteria for distinguishing parts of speech .............. 135
4.3 Open lexical classes ..................................... 137
4.4 Closed lexical classes ................................... 137
4.5 The nominal class ........................................ 138
4.5.1 Nouns ............................................. 138
4.5.2 Adjectives ........................................ 140
4.5.3 Pronouns .......................................... 141
4.5.4 Numerals .......................................... 142
4.5.5 Demonstratives .................................... 142
4.5.6 Postpositions and relational nouns ................ 142
4.5.7 Inflectable adverbs ............................... 143
4.5.8 Participles and converbs .......................... 143
4.6 Verbs .................................................... 144
4.7 Non-inflectional word classes ............................ 145
4.7.1 Non-inflectional adverbs .......................... 145
4.7.2 Interjections, particles, and conjunctions ........ 146
4.8 Clitics .................................................. 146
5 Nominal morphosyntax, case functions and possession ...... 147
5.1 Number ................................................... 147
5.2 Case and its functional domains .......................... 148
5.2.1 Case and Possession ............................... 148
5.2.2 Possessive suffixes and their use ................. 149
5.3 Grammatical cases and their functions .................... 149
5.3.1 Nominative and possessive nominative .............. 149
5.3.2 Possessive nominative ............................. 150
5.3.3 Genitive and possessive genitives ................. 151
5.3.4 Possessive genitive ............................... 151
5.3.5 Accusative and possessed accusatives .............. 152
5.3.6 Possessive accusative ............................. 152
5.3.7 Grammatical cases in earlier accounts ............. 154
5.3.8 A final note on alignment ......................... 155
5.4 Local cases - general comments ........................... 157
5.4.1 Local cases, number and morphology ................ 157
5.4.1.1 Local cases in the dual .................. 157
5.4.1.2 Local cases and their non-dual
realization .............................. 158
5.4.2 Lative ............................................ 158
5.4.2.1 Possessive lative ........................ 158
5.4.2.2 Function of the lative case .............. 159
5.4.3 Locative .......................................... 160
5.4.3.1 Possessive locative ...................... 160
5.4.3.2 Function of the locative case ............ 161
5.4.4 Ablative .......................................... 162
5.4.4.1 Possessive ablative ...................... 162
5.4.4.2 Function of the ablative case ............ 162
5.4.5 Excursus - expression of time by case ............. 164
5.5 Minor cases .............................................. 165
5.5.1 Prolative case .................................... 165
5.5.2 The essive-translative case ....................... 166
5.6 Nominal derivational morphology .......................... 167
5.6.1 Similative -raxa/-laxa ............................ 167
5.6.2 Diminutives ....................................... 168
5.6.2.1 Diminutive -ku vs. -kuča ................. 168
5.6.2.2 Double diminutives ....................... 169
5.6.2.3 Diminutives with the deceased ............ 169
5.6.3 Augmentative/Pejorative ........................... 169
5.6.4 Comitative and Caritive ........................... 170
5.6.4.1 Comitative ............................... 170
5.6.4.2 Caritive ................................. 171
5.6.5 Limitative suffix -ru/-lu ......................... 172
5.6.6 Indefinite and negative suffixes .................. 173
5.6.6.1 Indefinite-emphatic -xo/-go/-ko .......... 173
5.6.6.2 Negative -xuru/-guru/-kuru ............... 173
5.7 Benefactive -du/-du/-tu (predestinative declension) ...... 174
5.8 Adjectives ............................................... 174
5.8.1 Derivational morphology and adjectives ............ 175
5.8.1.1 Augmentative-pejorative -je .............. 175
5.8.1.2 Limitative -ru/-lu ....................... 175
5.8.1.3 Contrastive topic marker -ju
(polaritive) ............................. 176
5.8.1.4 -(V)igu derivation ....................... 176
5.8.1.5 -ita'a little more X than usual'
derivation ............................... 176
5.8.1.6 -rka'a little more than X'derivation ..... 177
5.8.2 Number and px on adjectives ....................... 177
5.8.3 -i derivation ..................................... 178
5.8.4 Excursus - participles as modifiers ............... 179
5.8.5 Expression of gradation ........................... 180
5.9 Numerals ................................................. 180
5.9.1 Cardinals ......................................... 181
5.9.2 Ordinals .......................................... 183
5.9.3 Other numerals and their morphology ............... 183
5.9.4 Limitative on numerals ............................ 184
5.9.5 Syntax of numerals ................................ 184
5.10 Pronouns and interrogatives .............................. 185
5.10.1 Pronouns in nominative case ....................... 186
5.10.2 Excursus - genitive possessive pronouns ........... 186
5.10.3 Pronouns in accusative case ....................... 187
5.10.4 Pronominal forms of local cases ................... 188
5.10.4.1 Lative compound pronouns ................. 188
5.10.4.2 Locative compound pronouns ............... 189
5.10.4.3 Ablative compound pronouns ............... 189
5.10.5 Intensive-Emphatic Pronoun/cer+pxGEN .............. 190
5.10.6 Reflexive-like pronoun puđu+pxACC ................. 192
5.10.7 Reciprocal-like kasa+px ........................... 194
5.10.8 Interrogative pronouns ............................ 195
5.10.9 Indefinite pronous ................................ 198
5.10.10 Negative pronouns ................................ 200
5.10.11 Personal pronouns and the limitative ............. 201
5.11 Demonstratives and determiners ........................... 203
5.11.1 Demonstratives äki 'this', täxä' 'that' and
čiki 'this' ....................................... 203
5.11.2 Demonstratives of quality fors/'this kind of
and älsi 'that kind of' ........................... 204
5.11.3 Spatial demonstratives and local cases ............ 204
5.11.4 Other possible deictic demonstratives ............. 205
5.12 Postpositions and relational nouns ....................... 206
5.12.1 The morphology of postpositions ................... 206
5.12.2 Inflectable postpositions ......................... 207
mi- 'inside' ...................................... 207
ńi- ńe- 'on, on top of ............................ 208
iru-'under, below' ................................ 209
Oru-'in front of, before' ......................... 209
Taxa-'back, behind' ............................... 210
5.12.3 Postpositions with decreased inflection ........... 210
De- 'movement towards' ............................ 210
D'od'i? ........................................... 211
5.12.4 Other postpositions ............................... 211
D'abon 'along' .................................... 212
D'abut' throughout' ............................... 212
Naru ~ noru 'across' .............................. 212
Poštiš 'around' ................................... 212
Pomon 'between' ................................... 212
Poggid 'movement into the middle' ................. 212
Pogun 'middle' .................................... 213
No(?) 'with' ...................................... 213
Noju 'towards' .................................... 213
Isigun 'from now' ................................. 213
Toun 'besides' .................................... 214
Kebon 'along the side' ............................ 214
5.12.5 Relational nouns inflecting for regular local
cases ............................................. 214
5.13 Adverbs .................................................. 215
5.13.1 Degree adverbs .................................... 215
Peri 'often, always' .............................. 215
ηul' 'verу' ....................................... 215
Mal'e 'already' ................................... 216
5.13.2 Manner adverbs .................................... 216
Toŕ'so, this way, in such a manner' ............... 217
Minxuda 'suddenly' ................................ 217
Lokri 'suddenly, then' ............................ 217
5.13.3 Directional and spatial adverbs ................... 217
5.13.4 Temporal adverbs .................................. 219
5.13.5 Modal adverbs ..................................... 220
6 The Noun Phrase .......................................... 222
6.1 Determiners and demonstratives ........................... 222
6.2 Quantifiers and numerals ................................. 225
6.2.1 Universal quantifiers ............................. 225
6.2.1.1 čukči 'all' .............................. 225
6.2.1.2 segmit 'every' ........................... 226
6.2.1.3 kuruxaru 'anything' ...................... 226
6.2.1.4 oburu 'any'............................... 227
6.2.2 Scalar quantifiers ................................ 227
6.2.2.1 oka 'much, many' ......................... 227
6.2.2.2 kutui 'some, few' ........................ 228
6.2.2.3 The status of tänä 'few, little' ......... 228
6.2.3 Numerals .......................................... 229
6.3 Adjectives ............................................... 230
6.4 NN constructions ......................................... 231
6.5 Possessive constructions ................................. 232
6.5.1 Pronominal possessor............................... 233
6.5.2 Lexical possessors ................................ 234
6.5.3 Possession and recursion .......................... 235
6.5.4 Alienable vs. inalienable possession .............. 235
6.5.5 Dummy px .......................................... 236
6.5.6 Part-whole relations .............................. 237
6.5.7 Pseudo-partitives ................................. 238
6.6 Attributive oblique NPs and PPs .......................... 238
6.7 Constituent order in the NP .............................. 239
6.8 Constituent order in NPs modified by relative clauses .... 240
6.9 Coordination within NP - general remarks ................. 241
6.9.1 Juxtaposition ..................................... 241
6.9.2 Double dual ....................................... 241
6.9.3 Postposition no? 'with' ........................... 241
6.9.4 Comitative -sai/-ďai/-čai ......................... 242
6.9.5 Coordination with Russian i 'and' ................. 242
6.9.6 Excursus: on? ..................................... 242
6.10 NP coordination in different syntactic positions ......... 244
6.10.1 Coordination of NPs in object position ............ 244
6.10.2 Coordination of NPs in modifier position .......... 245
6.11 Coordination with personal pronouns ...................... 245
6.11.1 Coordination of two pronouns ...................... 246
6.11.2 Coordination of pronoun and noun .................. 246
7 Verb complex ............................................. 247
7.1 Conjugation types ........................................ 247
7.1.1 Conjugation I (subjective conjugation) ............ 248
7.1.2 Conjugation II (objective conjugation) ............ 249
7.1.2.1 Indexing of objects ...................... 250
7.1.2.2 Reference to a singular object ........... 251
7.1.2.3 Reference to dual objects ................ 251
7.1.2.4 Reference to plural objects .............. 252
7.1.2.5 The use of conjugation II (objective
conjugation) ............................. 252
7.1.3 Conjugation III (reflexive conjugation) ........... 255
7.1.4 Verbal derivation and conjugation III ............. 259
7.1.5 Intransitivity and transitivity and Forest Enets
conjugation types ................................. 259
7.1.6 Conjugation types and their vx .................... 260
7.2 Tense .................................................... 260
7.2.1 Tense inventory ................................... 261
7.2.2 Aorist (general present tense) .................... 261
7.2.3 Reference to the past ............................. 262
7.2.3.1 General past ............................. 262
7.2.3.2 Perfect -bi/-pi .......................... 263
7.2.3.3 Distant past -bi/-pi + pst ............... 265
7.2.3.4 Anteriority in the future ................ 265
7.2.4 Future tense ...................................... 266
7.3 Aspect ................................................... 266
7.3.1 Durative -gu/-ku .................................. 268
7.3.2 Frequentatives .................................... 270
7.3.2.1 Lexicalized (historical) frequentative ... 270
7.3.2.2 Productive frequentative in -rV-/-IV- .... 272
7.3.3 Habitual -ubi/-mubi/-umbi/-mbi ................... 273
7.3.4 Discontinuative -ga/-ka ........................... 274
7.3.5 Delimitative -ita ................................. 275
7.3.6 Cumulative ........................................ 275
7.3.7 Inchoative -ra/-la ................................ 276
7.3.8 Translative-resultative -mа ....................... 276
7.4 Mood ..................................................... 278
7.4.1 Imperative mood and hortative mood ................ 279
7.4.1.1 Imperative conjugation I ................. 279
7.4.1.2 Imperative conjugation II ................ 280
7.4.1.3 Imperative conjugation III ............... 283
7.4.1.4 Hortative -xu/-gu/-ku .................... 283
7.4.1.5 Aspect and imperatives ................... 284
7.4.2 Necessative -ču ................................... 284
7.4.3 Interrogative -sa/-ďa/-ča ......................... 285
7.4.4 Conditional -ńi ................................... 286
7.4.4.1 Conditional -ńi + pst .................... 286
7.4.4.2 Conditional -ńi without further past
tense marking ............................ 287
7.4.5 Speculative moods with -raxa ...................... 288
7.4.6 Other moods ....................................... 290
7.4.6.1 Past probabilative mood .................. 290
7.4.6.2 Potential ................................ 292
7.4.6.3 The compound past potential mood ......... 294
7.4.6.4 Assertative mood ......................... 295
7.4.6.5 Assumptative -isi ........................ 297
7.4.6.6 Counterfactive mood ...................... 298
7.4.6 Desiderative -ra/-la .............................. 298
7.4.7 Inherent temporal reference of moods .............. 298
7.4.8 Moods and verbal endings - concluding remarks ..... 299
7.5 Grammatical and lexical means of evidentiality ........... 300
7.5.1 Auditive -nu/-mnu/-munu ........................... 300
7.5.2 A note on quotatives .............................. 301
7.5.3 Frequency and distribution of evidentiality ....... 302
7.6 Negation of verbal predicates by negative auxiliaries .... 302
7.6.1 Negative auxiliaries-general remarks .............. 303
7.6.2 Negation and conjugation types .................... 304
7.6.2.1 Negation and conjugation I ............... 304
7.6.2.2 Negation and conjugation II .............. 305
7.6.2.3 Negation and conjugation III ............. 305
7.6.3 The negated main verb ............................. 306
7.6.4 The negative auxiliary i- ......................... 307
7.6.5 Negation and the imperative complex ............... 309
7.6.5.1 Negation of imperatives in conjugation
I and II ................................. 309
7.6.5.2 Negation of imperatives in conjugation
III ...................................... 311
7.6.5.3 Negation of hortative .................... 311
7.6.6 The negative auxiliaries burii- and kici- ......... 311
7.6.7 The syntax of negation -signs of language
change? ........................................... 313
7.7 Negative verbs in Forest Enets ........................... 314
7.8 Transitivity and valency-changing morphology ............. 316
7.8.1 Causatives ........................................ 316
7.8.2 Passive -ra/-la ................................... 320
7.8.3 Transitivity-decreasing strategies ................ 321
8 Non-finite verb forms - participles, converbs, and
nominalizations .......................................... 325
8.1 Infinitival converb -š/-ď/-č ............................ 325
8.2 Temporal-conditional converb -bu/-pu ..................... 326
8.3 Participles .............................................. 327
8.3.1 Perfective participle -i?/-mi? .................... 327
8.3.2 Imperfective participle -đa/-da/-ta ............... 328
8.3.3 Futuritive -uda ................................... 329
8.3.4 Negative futuritive participle -uđai .............. 329
8.3.5 Excursus - unoriented and passivized participles .. 330
8.4 Nominalization ........................................... 330
8.4.1 zerol-ma action nominalization .................... 330
8.4.2 -ba nominalization ................................ 333
9 Clause types and interrogation ........................... 334
9.1 Nominal clauses .......................................... 334
9.2 Clauses with conjugated nominal predicates ............... 335
9.3 Affirmative copula clauses ............................... 336
9.3.1 eš 'be' ........................................... 336
9.3.2 karńš 'become' .................................... 337
9.3.3 ηaš 'be at' ....................................... 337
9.3.4 Summary of affirmative copula clauses ............. 338
9.4 Negative copula clauses ...................... 338
9.5 Existential clauses .......................... 340
9.5.1 Proper existential clauses ........................ 341
9.5.2 Existential clauses expressing possession ......... 341
9.5.3 Existential clauses introducing a new discourse
topic ............................................. 342
9.6 Intransitive clause ...................................... 343
9.6.1 Intransitive clauses with a monovalent predicate .. 343
9.6.2 Intransitive clauses with a bivalent predicate .... 345
9.6.3 taraš construction ................................ 346
9.6.4 Passive ........................................... 348
9.7 Transitive clauses ....................................... 348
9.7.1 Transitive clauses expressing reciprocal actions .. 349
9.7.2 Transitive clauses expressing reflexive actions ... 350
9.7.3 Transitive clauses expressing causation ........... 350
9.8 Ditransitive clauses ..................................... 351
9.9 A note on interrogation .................................. 353
9.9.1 Yes/no questions .................................. 354
9.9.2 Content questions ................................. 355
9.9.2.1 Constituent questions .................... 356
9.9.2.2 Questions and phrasal dependents ......... 357
9.9.2.3 Benefactives and questions ............... 358
9.9.2.4 Questions about adverbials ............... 359
9.9.2.5 Other uses of obu 'what' ................. 359
10 Word order, topicality and topic marking ................. 361
10.1 Constituent order ........................................ 361
10.1.1 Constituent order in intransitive verbal clauses .. 361
10.1.2 Constituent order in semi-verbal clauses .......... 362
10.1.3 Constituent order in transitive verbal clauses .... 363
10.1.4 Constituent order in ditransitive clauses ......... 363
10.1.5 Constituent order and complement clauses .......... 364
10.1.6 Constituent order and adverbial clauses ........... 364
10.2 Position of adverbs and the focus particle ............... 366
10.2.1 Position of adverbs ............................... 366
10.2.2 Position of the focus marker an? .................. 368
10.3 Constituent order and its implication for alignment ...... 369
10.4 Alternative word orders .................................. 370
10.5 A note on topic prominence and topic marking ............. 371
10.5.1 Referential (non-possessive) use of possessive
suffixes .......................................... 371
10.5.1.1 The referential usage of px.2sg .......... 371
10.5.1.2 The referential usage of px.3sg .......... 374
10.5.1.3 Topic prominence via conjugation II ...... 375
10.5.1.4 Preliminary results - primary vs.
secondary topics and syntax .............. 377
11 The benefactive declension ............................... 378
11.1 The benefactive in earlier descriptions .................. 379
11.1.1 The morphological structure of benefactive in
earlier accounts .................................. 380
11.1.2 Other accounts describing the benefactive ......... 381
11.2 The benefactive in Forest Enets and its basic function ... 381
11.2.1 ben and number .................................... 383
11.2.2 Intermediate summary .............................. 384
11.2.3 ben and interrogatives ............................ 385
11.2.4 The status of Prokofev's 'prd-prd' ................ 385
11.2.5 ben expressing a reflexive construction ........... 386
11.2.6 ben and morphosyntactic restrictions .............. 387
11.3 The internal morphology of ben ........................... 387
11.4 More on the morphosyntax of ben .......................... 389
11.5 ben, argument structure and the lexicon .................. 391
11.5.1 Verb classes and ben .............................. 391
11.5.2 Alternative p encoding - different possible
conceptualizations ................................ 394
11.6 ben - case, derivation or something else? ................ 395
11.6.1 ben and passivization ............................. 395
11.6.2 ben and relativization ............................ 396
11.6.3 ben - case, derivation, declension or something
else? ............................................. 397
11.7 ben - language history and areal considerations .......... 401
11.7.1 Internal reconstruction ........................... 401
11.7.2 Areal considerations .............................. 402
12 The passive .............................................. 404
12.1 Voice in Forest Enets .................................... 405
12.1.1 Passive voice in Forest Enets ..................... 405
12.2 Voice, diathesis, passives/impersonals and related
matters .................................................. 406
12.3 Passives and impersonals ................................. 407
12.4 The passive in Forest Enets .............................. 409
12.4.1 Morphology ........................................ 409
12.4.2 Syntax - passive and simple clauses ............... 410
12.4.3 Passives in complex clauses ....................... 412
12.4.4 Passive and tense ................................. 413
12.4.5 Passive and aspect ................................ 413
12.4.6 Passive and mood .................................. 414
12.4.7 Variation in agent encoding - differential
encoding or decay? ................................ 415
12.4.8 Passive and participles ........................... 417
12.5 The Forest Enets passive from an areal and a historical
perspective .............................................. 419
12.5.1 The double nature of -ra/-la ...................... 419
12.5.2 The Forest Enets passive from an areal
perspective ....................................... 422
12.5.2.1 Lative-marked and similarly marked
agents in Eurasia ........................ 422
12.5.2.2 Passives, resultatives and adversatives
in Eurasia ............................... 423
12.6 The Forest Enets passive - conclusions ................... 424
13 Complex sentences ........................................ 425
13.1 Coordination on clause level ............................. 425
13.2 Adverbial clauses ........................................ 426
13.2.1 Adverbial clauses with temporal reference ......... 428
13.2.1.1 Posteriority ............................. 428
13.2.1.2 Simultaneity ............................. 429
13.2.1.3 Anteriority .............................. 432
13.2.1.4 Summary: temporal adverbial clauses ...... 434
13.2.2 Manner ............................................ 434
13.2.3 Purpose-final clauses ............................. 435
13.2.4 'instead of doing X'clauses ....................... 437
13.2.4.1 'Instead of doing X' clauses based on
participles and deon ..................... 437
13.2.4.2 'Instead of doing X' constructions
based on zero/ma- nominalization, pxGEN,
and ďeon ................................. 437
13.2.4.3 'Instead of doing X'constructions in
Sorokina (1981 a) and Terešćenko (1966) .. 438
13.3 Adverbial clauses based on the -bu/-pu converb ........... 440
13.3.1 -bu/-pu converb clauses expressing a
simultaneous relationship in the aorist ........... 440
13.3.2 -bu/-pu converb clauses expressing a temporal
relationship in the past .......................... 441
13.3.3 -bu/-pu converb + conditional ńi + pxGEN .......... 441
13.3.4 Variation in px marking ........................... 442
13.3.5 Summary: converb clauses with -bu/-pu ............. 444
13.4 Control in adverbial clauses ............................. 445
13.5 Complement clauses ....................................... 446
13.5.1 Complement clauses in S position .................. 449
13.5.2 Finite complement clauses in О position ........... 449
13.5.3 Non-finite complement clauses in o position ....... 451
13.5.4 Complement clauses with komas 'want' in the
function of oblique arguments ..................... 452
13.5.5 Excursus: finite О complements with komaš ......... 453
13.5.6 Finite complement clauses and discourse ........... 454
13.5.7 Raising ........................................... 455
13.5.8 Summary ........................................... 455
13.6 Phasal predicates ........................................ 456
13.6.1 Verbs allowing phasal complements ................. 456
13.7 The relative clause ...................................... 458
13.7.1 Relative clauses based on participles (rcPTCP) .... 458
13.7.2 Relativization of other grammatical roles ......... 460
13.7.2.1 Relativization of 'indirect objects' ..... 460
13.7.2.2 Relativization of lower grammatical
roles via pronominalization .............. 460
14 Texts .................................................... 462
14.1 Nadežda Bolina: Mouse and Fish ........................... 463
14.2 Zoja Bolina: Living in the Tundra ........................ 468
14.3 Leonid Bolin: Two Fishermen and a Bear ................... 476
14.4 Dar'ja Bolina: Past Summer ............................... 481
14.5 Anatolij Pal'čin: My Father .............................. 487
Appendix I - Forest Enets as a written language ............... 493
The Cyrillic script and Forest Enets ..................... 493
Palatalization ........................................... 494
Representation of long vowels and diphthongs ending in
/i/ ...................................................... 494
Representation of the glottal stop ....................... 495
Alternative graphic representations ...................... 496
Texts published in different orthographies ............... 496
Marija Bolina - Three Women ........................... 496
Dar'ja Bolina & Zoja Bolina - Two Reindeer ............ 502
Appendix II - Forest Enets as written by an untrained
speaker .................................................. 506
Appendix III - Russian/Siberian vocabulary used in this
monograph ................................................ 510
References and literature ..................................... 511
Abbreviations ............................................ 511
Unpublished sources ...................................... 512
Literature ............................................... 513
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