Abstract ...................................................... vii
Foreword (Harold Robinson) ................................... viii
Preface ........................................................ ix
Acknowledgments ................................................. x
Additional Acknowledgments (Warren L. Wagner) ................. xii
Chapter 1 Chronological Sketch of Systematic Studies ........... 1
Chapter 2 Life-Forms .......................................... 14
The Concept of Caulirosula .................................. 14
Classification of Life-Forms ................................ 20
Chapter 3 Time and Place of Origin ............................ 29
Age of the Espeletiinae in the Context of the Asteraceae
and Tribe Heliantheae ....................................... 29
Place of Origin and Center of Radiation ..................... 30
Scenario for the Origin of the Espeletiinae ................. 31
Chapter 4 Distribution and Environment ........................ 33
Vegetation Zones ............................................ 33
Climatic and Edaphic Data ................................... 38
Chapter 5 Relationships of the Espeletiinae ................... 42
Chromosome Numbers .......................................... 44
Achene Structure ............................................ 44
Life-Forms .................................................. 47
Chapter 6 Morphological Characteristics of Genera and
Species ..................................................... 48
Leaves ...................................................... 48
Leaf Scars .................................................. 48
Trichomes and Indument ...................................... 48
Seedlings ................................................... 56
Chapter 7 Transectional Anatomy of Stems and Leaves ........... 59
Development of the Caulirosulan Structure ................... 60
Stem Anatomy ................................................ 62
Leaf Anatomy ................................................ 75
Anatomical Descriptions of Genera ........................... 77
Anatomical Key to Genera .................................... 80
Chapter 8 Synflorescences ..................................... 81
Dichasial Synflorescences ................................... 81
Monochasial Synflorescences ................................. 87
The Capitulum ............................................... 89
Chapter 9 The Floral Concept of the Capitulum in the
Development of the Angiosperms .............................. 90
The Compound Flower or Superflower .......................... 90
Distribution and Polymerization of Sexual Organs ............ 90
Origin of the Capitulum as a Superflower .................... 92
Summary ..................................................... 94
Chapter 10 Pollination and Dispersal ........................... 95
Pollination ................................................. 95
Pollen Morphology ........................................... 97
Dispersal ................................................... 98
Chapter 11 Visiting and Resident Fauna ........................ 108
Arthropods ................................................. 108
Birds ...................................................... 109
Chapter 12 Endangered Species, Economic Uses, and
Conservation ............................................... 110
Endangered Species ......................................... 110
Economic Uses and Conservation ............................. 110
Chapter 13 Characterization of Subtribe Espeletiinae
Cuatrecasas ................................................ 113
Key to Genera .............................................. 114
Chapter 14 Espeletia .......................................... 116
The Capitulum .............................................. 116
Origin, Radiation, and Speciation .......................... 121
Environment ................................................ 133
Key to Sections of Espeletia ............................... 133
Key to Sections and Species of Espeletia ................... 134
Excluded Species ........................................... 379
Chapter 15 Carramboa .......................................... 380
Habit ...................................................... 380
The Capitulum .............................................. 380
Origin and Radiation ....................................... 381
Environment ................................................ 381
Key to Species of Carramboa ................................ 381
Chapter 16 Tamania ............................................ 403
The Capitulum and Flowers .................................. 403
Origin, Distribution, and Environment ...................... 403
Chapter 17 Libanothamnus ...................................... 411
The Capitulum .............................................. 412
Origin and Radiation ....................................... 413
Alternate Abridged Key to Species of Libanothamnus ......... 417
Key to Species of Libanothamnus ............................ 417
Chapter 18 Ruilopezia ......................................... 472
Habit ...................................................... 473
The Capitulum .............................................. 473
Origin, Radiation, and Environment ......................... 476
Key to Subgenera of Ruilopezia ............................. 479
Key to Subgenera and Species of Ruilopezia ................. 481
Chapter 19 CoEspeletia ........................................ 572
The Capitulum .............................................. 573
Origin and Evolution ....................................... 573
Key to Species of Coespeletia .............................. 575
Chapter 20 Paramiflos ......................................... 607
Bibliography .................................................. 610
Appendix I Specimens Examined ................................ 621
Appendix II Numerical List of Taxa ........................... 667
Appendix III List of Exsiccatae .............................. 669
Index of Local Names .......................................... 677
Index of Scientific Names ..................................... 678
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