Preface ....................................................... vii
Acknowledgements .............................................. xii
1 Introducing Hymenoptera and their Conservation ............... 1
Perspective .................................................. 1
Classification and diversity ................................. 1
Importance for conservation ................................. 14
Social life and conservation ................................ 24
2 Alien Hymenoptera in Classical Biological Control ........... 28
Introducing a dilemma ....................................... 28
Conservation concerns ....................................... 28
3 The Junction of Biological Control and Conservation:
Conservation Biological Control and Cultural Control ........ 41
4 Introduced Bees: Threats or Benefits? ....................... 51
5 Social Wasps and Ants as Aliens ............................. 63
Social wasps ................................................ 63
Ants ........................................................ 68
Current perspective ......................................... 79
6 Pollinator Declines ......................................... 82
Introducing the concerns .................................... 82
Threats to pollinators ...................................... 92
Pathogens and parasites ..................................... 93
Pesticides .................................................. 97
Pollution ................................................... 99
7 Levels of Conservation Concern and the Shortcomings of
Current Practice ........................................... 100
Foci for conservation ...................................... 100
Species focus .............................................. 104
Biotope and habitat focus .................................. 122
8 Habitat Parameters and Manipulation ........................ 138
Defining and assessing habitats in the landscape ........... 138
Habitat manipulations for conservation ..................... 141
Natural and agricultural environments ...................... 141
Urban environments ......................................... 147
Practical conservation ..................................... 150
9 Species Case Histories ..................................... 168
Franklin's bumblebee (Bombus franklini) .................... 170
The great yellow bumblebee (Bombus distinguendus) .......... 170
Wallace's bee (Chalicodoma pluto) .......................... 173
Neopasiphae simplicior in Western Australia ................ 174
The antennal-waving wasp (Tachysphex pechumani) ............ 174
The dinosaur ant (Nothomyrmecia macrops) ................... 175
The red-barbed ant (Formica rufibarbis) in Britain ......... 177
10 Assessing Conservation Progress and Priorities for the
Future ..................................................... 179
Introduction: The basic need ............................... 179
Monitoring ................................................. 180
The milieux of concern ..................................... 185
References .................................................... 191
Index ......................................................... 214
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