Springer Handbook of Nanotechnology. - 3rd rev. and extended ed. - Berlin; Heidelberg: Springer, 2010. - xlviii, 1961 p.: ill. + 1 DVD-ROM. - Bibliogr. at the end of the chapters. - Sub. ind.: p.1919-1961. - ISBN 978-3-642-02524-2  Место хранения:   02 | Отделение ГПНТБ СО РАН | Новосибирск

Оглавление / Contents

List of Abbreviations ......................................... XLI 1 Introduction to Nanotechnology Bharat Bhushan ............................................... 1 1.1 Nanotechnology - Definition and Examples ................ 1 1.2 Background and Research Expenditures .................... 4 1.3 Lessons from Nature (Biomimetics) ....................... 6 1.4 Applications in Different Fields ........................ 9 1.5 Various Issues ......................................... 10 1.6 Research Training ...................................... 11 1.7 Organization of the Handbook ........................... 11 References .................................................. 12 Part A Nanostructures, Micro-/Nanofabrication and Materials 2 Nanomaterials Synthesis and Applications: Molecule-Based Devices Françisco M. Raymo .......................................... 17 2.1 Chemical Approaches to Nanostructured Materials ........ 18 2.2 Molecular Switches and Logic Gates ..................... 22 2.3 Solid State Devices .................................... 30 2.4 Conclusions and Outlook ................................ 42 References .................................................. 43 3 Introduction to Carbon Nanotubes More Monthioux, Philippe Serp, Emmanuel Flahaut, Manitra Razafinimanana, Christophe Laurent, Alain Peigney, Wolfgang Bacsa, Jean-Marc Broto .................... 47 3.1 Structure of Carbon Nanotubes .......................... 48 3.2 Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes .......................... 53 3.3 Growth Mechanisms of Carbon Nanotubes .................. 70 3.4 Properties of Carbon Nanotubes ......................... 74 3.5 Carbon Nanotube-Based Nano-Objects ..................... 80 3.6 Applications of Carbon Nanotubes ....................... 85 3.7 Toxicity and Environmental Impact of Carbon Nanotubes .............................................. 99 3.8 Concluding Remarks .................................... 100 References ................................................. 101 4 Nanowires Mildred S. Dresselhaus, Yu-Ming Lin, Oded Rabin, Marcie R. Black, Jing Kong, Gene Dresselhaus ...................... 119 4.1 Synthesis ............................................. 121 4.2 Characterization and Physical Properties of Nanowires ............................................. 130 4.3 Applications .......................................... 152 4.4 Concluding Remarks .................................... 159 References ................................................. 159 5 Template-Based Synthesis of Nanorod or Nanowire Arrays Huamei (Mary) Shang, Guozhong Cao .......................... 169 5.1 Template-Based Approach ............................... 170 5.2 Electrochemical Deposition ............................ 171 5.3 Electrophoretic Deposition ............................ 175 5.4 Template Filling ...................................... 180 5.5 Converting from Reactive Templates .................... 182 5.6 Summary and Concluding Remarks ........................ 182 References ................................................. 183 6 Templated Self-Assembly of Particles Tobias Kraus, Heiko Wolf ................................... 187 6.1 The Assembly Process .................................. 189 6.2 Classes of Directed Particle Assembly ................. 194 6.3 Templates ............................................. 202 6.4 Processes and Setups .................................. 205 6.5 Conclusions ........................................... 206 References ................................................. 207 7 Three-Dimensional Nanostructure Fabrication by Focused Ion Beam Chemical Vapor Deposition Shinji Matsui .............................................. 211 7.1 Three-Dimensional Nanostructure Fabrication ........... 212 7.2 Nanoelectromechanics .................................. 215 7.3 Nanooptics: Brilliant Blue Observation from a Morpho Butterfly Scale Quasistructure ........................ 223 7.4 Nanobiology ........................................... 224 7.5 Summary ............................................... 228 References ................................................. 228 8 Introduction to Micro-/Nanofabrication Babak Ziaie, Antonio Baldi, Massood I. Atashbar ............ 231 8.1 Basic Microfabrication Techniques ..................... 232 8.2 MEMS Fabrication Techniques ........................... 244 8.3 Nanofabrication Techniques ............................ 256 8.4 Summary and Conclusions ............................... 265 References ................................................. 265 9 Nanoimprint Lithography - Patterning of Resists Using Molding Helmut Schift, Anders Kristensen ........................... 271 9.1 Emerging Nanopatterning Methods ....................... 273 9.2 Nanoimprint Process ................................... 277 9.3 Tools and Materials for Nanoimprinting ................ 288 9.4 Nanoimprinting Applications ........................... 294 9.5 Conclusions and Outlook ............................... 302 References ................................................. 304 10 Stamping Techniques for Micro- and Nanofabrication Etienne Menard, John A. Rogers ............................. 313 10.1 High-Resolution Stamps ................................ 314 10.2 Microcontact Printing ................................. 316 10.3 Nanotransfer Printing ................................. 318 10.4 Applications .......................................... 322 10.5 Conclusions ........................................... 329 References ................................................. 330 11 Material Aspects of Micro- and Nanoelectromechanical Systems Christian A. Zorman, Mehran Mehregany ...................... 333 11.1 Silicon ............................................... 333 11.2 Germanium-Based Materials ............................. 340 11.3 Metals ................................................ 341 11.4 Harsh-Environment Semiconductors ...................... 343 11.5 GaAs, InP, and Related III-V Materials ................ 349 11.6 Ferroelectric Materials ............................... 350 11.7 Polymer Materials ..................................... 351 11.8 Future Trends ......................................... 352 References ................................................. 353 Part В MEMS/NEMS and BioMEMS/NEMS 12 MEMS/NEMS Devices and Applications Darrin J. Young, Christian A. Zorman, Mehran Mehregany ..... 359 12.1 MEMS Devices and Applications ......................... 361 12.2 Nanoelectromechanical Systems (NEMS) .................. 380 12.3 Current Challenges and Future Trends .................. 383 References ................................................. 384 13 Next-Generation DNA Hybridization and Self-Assembly Nanofabrication Devices Michael J. Heller, Benjamin Sullivan, Dietrich Dehlinger, Paul Swanson, Dalibor Hodko ................................. 389 13.1 Electronic Microarray Technology ...................... 391 13.2 Electric Field-Assisted Nanofabrication Processes ..... 397 13.3 Conclusions ........................................... 399 References ................................................. 400 14 Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Sensor Concepts Cosmin Roman, Thomas Helbling, Christofer Hierold .......... 403 14.1 Design Considerations for SWNT Sensors ................ 404 14.2 Fabrication of SWNTSensors ............................ 412 14.3 Example State-of-the-Art Applications ................. 416 14.4 Concluding Remarks .................................... 421 References ................................................. 421 15 Nanomechanical Cantilever Array Sensors Hans Peter Lang, Martin Hegner, Christoph Gerber ........... 427 15.1 Technique ............................................. 427 15.2 Cantilever Array Sensors .............................. 429 15.3 Modes of Operation .................................... 430 15.4 Microfabrication ...................................... 434 15.5 Measurement Setup ..................................... 434 15.6 Functionalization Techniques .......................... 438 15.7 Applications .......................................... 439 15.8 Conclusions and Outlook ............................... 445 References ................................................. 446 16 Biological Molecules in Therapeutic Nanodevices Stephen С. Lee, Bharat Bhushan ............................. 453 16.1 Definitions and Scope ................................. 454 16.2 Assembly Approaches ................................... 461 16.3 Sensing Devices ....................................... 471 16.4 Concluding Remarks: Barriers to Practice .............. 478 References ................................................. 480 17 G-Protein Coupled Receptors: Progress in Surface Display and Biosensor Technology Wayne R. Leifert, Tamara H. Cooper, Kelly Bailey ........... 485 17.1 The GPCR:G-Protein Activation Cycle ................... 488 17.2 Preparation of GPCRs and G-Proteins ................... 489 17.3 Protein Engineering in GPCR Signaling ................. 490 17.4 GPCR Biosensing ....................................... 491 17.5 The Future of GPCRs ................................... 499 References ................................................. 499 18 Microfluidic Devices and Their Applications to Lab-on-a- Chip Chong H. Ahn, Jin-Woo Choi ................................. 503 18.1 Materials for Microfluidic Devices and Micro/ Nanofabrication Techniques ............................ 504 18.2 Active Microfluidic Devices ........................... 507 18.3 Smart Passive Microfluidic Devices .................... 513 18.4 Lab-on-a-Chip for Biochemical Analysis ................ 520 References ................................................. 527 19 Centrifuge-Based Fluidic Platforms Jim V. Zoval, Guangyao Jia, Horacio Kido, Jitae Kim, Nahui Kim, Marc J. Madou ................................... 531 19.1 Why Centripetal Force for Fluid Propulsion? ........... 532 19.2 Compact Disc or Microcentrifuge Fluidics .............. 534 19.3 CD Applications ....................................... 538 19.4 Conclusion ............................................ 549 References ................................................. 550 20 Micro-/Nanodroplets in Microfluidic Devices Yung-Chieh Tan, Shia-Yen Teh, Abraham P. Lee ............... 553 20.1 Active or Programmable Droplet Systems ................ 554 20.2 Passive Droplet Control Techniques .................... 557 20.3 Applications .......................................... 564 20.4 Conclusions ........................................... 566 References ................................................. 566 Part С Scanning-Probe Microscopy 21 Scanning Probe Microscopy - Principle of Operation, Instrumentation, and Probes Bharat Bhushan, Othmar Marti ............................... 573 21.1 Scanning Tunneling Microscope ......................... 575 21.2 Atomic Force Microscope ............................... 579 21.3 AFM Instrumentation and Analyses ...................... 595 References ................................................. 612 22 General and Special Probes in Scanning Microscopies Jason Hafner, Edin (I-Chen) Chen, Ratnesh Lal, Sungho Jin ........................................................ 619 22.1 Atomic Force Microscopy ............................... 620 22.2 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy ......................... 630 References ................................................. 631 23 Noncontact Atomic Force Microscopy and Related Topics Franz J. Giessibl, Yasuhiro Sugawara, Seizo Morita, Hirotaka Hosoi, Kazuhisa Sueoka, Koichi Mukasa, Akira Sasahara, Hiroshi Onishi ................................... 635 23.1 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) ......................... 636 23.2 Applications to Semiconductors ........................ 641 23.3 Applications to Insulators ............................ 647 23.4 Applications to Molecules ............................. 654 References ................................................. 658 24 Low-Temperature Scanning Probe Microscopy Markus Morgenstern, Alexander Schwarz, Udo D. Schwarz ...... 663 24.1 Microscope Operation at Low Temperatures .............. 664 24.2 Instrumentation ....................................... 666 24.1 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy and Spectroscopy ........ 669 24.4 Scanning Force Microscopy and Spectroscopy ............ 688 References ................................................. 700 25 Higher Harmonics and Time-Varying Forces in Dynamic Force Microscopy Ozgur Sahin, Calvin F. Quate, Olav Solgaard, Franz J. Giessibl ................................................... 711 25.1 Modeling of Tip-Sample Interaction Forces in Tapping-Mode AFM ...................................... 712 25.2 Enhancing the Cantilever Response to Time-Varying Forces ................................................ 714 25.3 Application Examples .................................. 720 25.4 Higher-Harmonic Force Microscopy with Small Amplitudes ............................................ 724 References ................................................. 728 26 Dynamic Modes of Atomic Force Microscopy André Schirmeisen, Boris Anczykowski, Hendrik Hölscher, Harald Fuchs ............................................... 731 26.1 Motivation - Measurement of a Single Atomic Bond ...... 732 26.2 Harmonic Oscillator: a Model System for Dynamic AFM ... 736 26.3 DynamicAFM Operational Modes .......................... 737 26.4 Q-Control ............................................. 750 26.5 Dissipation Processes Measured with Dynamic AFM ....... 754 26.6 Conclusions ........................................... 758 References ................................................. 758 27 Molecular Recognition Force Microscopy: From Molecular Bonds to Complex Energy Landscapes Peter Hinterdorfer, Andreas Ebner, Hermann Gruber, Ruti Kapon, Ziv Reich ........................................... 763 27.1 Ligand Tip Chemistry .................................. 764 27.2 Immobilization of Receptors onto Probe Surfaces ....... 766 27.3 Single-Molecule Recognition Force Detection ........... 767 27.4 Principles of Molecular Recognition Force Spectroscopy .......................................... 769 27.5 Recognition Force Spectroscopy: From Isolated Molecules to Biological Membranes ..................... 771 27.6 Recognition Imaging ................................... 779 27.7 Concluding Remarks .................................... 781 References ................................................. 781 Part D Bio-/Nanotribology and Bio-/Nanomechanics 28 Nanotribology, Nanomechanics, and Materials Characterization Bharat Bhushan ............................................. 789 28.1 Description of AFM/FFM and Various Measurement Techniques ............................................ 791 28.2 Surface Imaging, Friction, and Adhesion ............... 802 28.3 Wear, Scratching, Local Deformation, and Fabrication/Machining ................................. 828 28.4 Indentation ........................................... 836 28.1 Boundary Lubrication .................................. 840 28.2 Conclusion ............................................ 849 References ................................................. 851 29 Surface Forces and Nanorheology of Molecularly Thin Films Marina Ruths, Jacob N. Israelachvili ....................... 857 29.1 Introduction: Types of Surface Forces ................. 858 29.2 Methods Used to Study Surface Forces .................. 860 29.3 Normal Forces Between Dry (Unlubricated) Surfaces ..... 864 29.4 Normal Forces Between Surfaces in Liquids ............. 868 29.5 Adhesion and Capillary Forces ......................... 878 29.6 Introduction: Different Modes of Friction and the Limits of Continuum Models ............................ 884 29.7 Relationship Between Adhesion and Friction Between Dry (Unlubricated and Solid Boundary Lubricated) Surfaces .............................................. 885 29.8 Liquid Lubricated Surfaces ............................ 896 29.9 Effects of Nanoscale Texture on Friction .............. 908 References ................................................. 911 30 Friction and Wear on the Atomic Scale Enrico Gnecco, Roland Bennewitz, Oliver Pfeiffer, Anisoara Socoliuc, Ernst Meyer ............................. 923 30.1 Friction Force Microscopy in Ultrahigh Vacuum ......... 924 30.2 TheTomlinson Model .................................... 928 30.3 Friction Experiments on the Atomic Scale .............. 930 30.4 Thermal Effects on Atomic Friction .................... 935 30.5 Geometry Effects in Nanocontacts ...................... 938 30.6 Wear on the Atomic Scale .............................. 942 30.7 Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Atomic Friction and Wear .............................................. 944 30.8 Energy Dissipation in Noncontact Atomic Force Microscopy ............................................ 947 30.9 Conclusion ............................................ 949 References ................................................. 949 31 Computer Simulations of Nanometer-Scale Indentation and Friction Susan B. Sinnott, Seong-Jun Heo, Donald W. Brenner, Judith A. Harrison, Douglas L. Irving ...................... 955 31.1 Computational Details ................................. 956 31.2 Indentation ........................................... 961 31.3 Friction and Lubrication .............................. 976 31.4 Conclusions .......................................... 1002 References ................................................ 1002 32 Force Measurements with Optical Tweezers Othmar Marti, Katrin Hübner ............................... 1013 32.1 Optical Tweezers ..................................... 1013 32.2 Influence of Surfaces and Viscosity .................. 1017 32.3 Thermal Noise Imaging ................................ 1018 32.4 Applications in Cell Biology ......................... 1018 References ................................................ 1021 33 Scale Effect in Mechanical Properties and Tribology Bharat Bhushan, Michael Nosonovsky ........................ 1023 33.1 Nomenclature ......................................... 1024 33.2 Introduction ......................................... 1025 33.3 Scale Effect in Mechanical Properties ................ 1027 33.4 Scale Effect in Surface Roughness and Contact Parameters ........................................... 1031 33.5 Scale Effect in Friction ............................. 1034 33.6 Scale Effect in Wear ................................. 1046 33.7 Scale Effect in Interface Temperature ................ 1046 33.8 Closure .............................................. 1047 33.9 Statistics of Particle Size Distribution ............. 1049 References ................................................ 1052 34 Structural, Nanomechanical, and Nanotribological Characterization of Human Hair Using Atomic Force Microscopy and Nanoindentation Bharat Bhushan, Carmen LaTorre ............................ 1055 34.1 Human Hair, and Skin and Hair Care Products .......... 1058 34.2 Experimental ......................................... 1068 34.3 Structural Characterization Using an AFM ............. 1080 34.4 Nanomechanical Characterization Using Nanoindentation, Nanoscratch, and AFM ................ 1087 34.5 Multiscale Tribological Characterization ............. 1112 34.6 Conditioner Thickness Distribution and Binding Interactions on Hair Surface ......................... 1145 34.7 Surface Potential Studies of Human Hair Using Kelvin Probe Microscopy .............................. 1153 34.8 Conclusions .......................................... 1164 34.A Shampoo and Conditioner Treatment Procedure .......... 1166 34.B Conditioner Thickness Approximation .................. 1166 References ................................................ 1167 35 Cellular Nanomechanics Roger Kamm, Jan Lammerding, Mohammad Mofrad ............... 1171 35.1 Overview ............................................. 1171 35.2 Structural Components of a Cell ...................... 1173 35.3 Experimental Methods ................................. 1179 35.4 Theoretical and Computational Descriptions ........... 1185 35.5 Mechanics of Subcellular Structures .................. 1188 35.6 Current Understanding and Future Needs ............... 1196 References ................................................ 1196 36 Optical Cell Manipulation Carsten Stüber, Tobias Kießling, Anatol Fritsch, Franziska Wetzel, Christian Schulze, Dan Strehle, Josef Käs ....................................................... 1201 36.1 Interaction of Laser Light with Cells ................ 1202 36.2 Optical Tweezers ..................................... 1206 36.3 Holographic Optical Tweezers ......................... 1209 36.4 Optical Rotation ..................................... 1211 36.5 Microdissection or Laser Scalpels .................... 1213 36.6 Cell Sorting ......................................... 1215 36.7 The Optical Stretcher ................................ 1218 36.8 Conclusion and Outlook ............................... 1222 References ................................................ 1222 37 Mechanical Properties of Nanostructures Bharat Bhushan ............................................ 1227 37.1 Experimental Techniques for Measurement of Mechanical Properties of Nanostructures .............. 1229 37.2 Experimental Results and Discussion .................. 1235 37.3 Finite-Element Analysis of Nanostructures with Roughness and Scratches .............................. 1253 37.4 Summary .............................................. 1259 37.5 Fabrication Procedure for the Double-Anchored and Cantilever Beams ..................................... 1260 References ................................................ 1262 Part E Molecularly Thick Films for Lubrication 38 Nanotribology of Ultrathin and Hard Amorphous Carbon Films Bharat Bhushan ............................................ 1269 38.1 Description of Common Deposition Techniques .......... 1273 38.2 Chemical and Physical Coating Characterization ....... 1277 38.3 Micromechanical and Tribological Coating Characterization ..................................... 1283 38.4 Closure .............................................. 1304 References ................................................ 1305 39 Self-Assembled Monolayers for Nanotribology and Surface Protection Bharat Bhushan ............................................ 1309 39.1 Background ........................................... 1309 39.2 A Primer to Organic Chemistry ........................ 1313 39.3 Self-Assembled Monolayers: Substrates, Spacer Chains, and End Groups in the Molecular Chains ....... 1316 39.4 Contact Angle and Nanotribological Properties of SAMs ................................................. 1319 39.5 Summary .............................................. 1340 References ................................................ 1342 40 Nanoscale Boundary Lubrication Studies Bharat Bhushan ............................................ 1347 40.1 Boundary Films ....................................... 1347 40.2 Nanodeformation, Molecular Conformation, Spreading, and Nanotribological Studies ......................... 1348 40.3 Nanotribological, Electrical, and Chemical Degradations Studies and Environmental Effects in Novel PFPE Lubricant Films ........................... 1366 40.4 Nanotribological and Electrical Studies of Ionic Liquid Films ......................................... 1375 40.5 Conclusions .......................................... 1392 References ................................................ 1393 Part F Biomimetics 41 Multifunctional Plant Surfaces and Smart Materials Kerstin Koch, Bharat Bhushan, Wilhelm Barthlott ........... 1399 41.1 The Architecture of Plant Surfaces ................... 1402 41.2 Multifunctional Plant Surfaces ....................... 1417 41.3 Technical Uses of Superhydrophobicity ................ 1426 41.4 Conclusions .......................................... 1430 References ................................................ 1431 42 Lotus Effect: Surfaces with Roughness-Induced Superhydrophobicity, Self-Cleaning, and Low Adhesion Bharat Bhushan, Yong Chae Jung, Michael Nosonovsky ........ 1437 42.1 Background ........................................... 1438 42.2 Modeling of Contact Angle for a Liquid in Contact with a Rough Surface ................................. 1442 42.3 Lotus Effect Surfaces in Nature ...................... 1453 42.4 How to Make a Superhydrophobic Surface ............... 1462 42.5 Fabrication and Characterization of Micro-, Nano-, and Hierarchical Patterned Surfaces .................. 1468 42.6 Modeling, Fabrication, and Characterization of Oleophobic/Oleophilic Surfaces ....................... 1509 42.7 Conclusions .......................................... 1517 References ................................................ 1518 43 Biological and Biologically Inspired Attachment Systems Stanislav N. Gorb ......................................... 1525 43.1 Foreword ............................................. 1525 43.2 Attachment Systems ................................... 1526 43.3 Biological Functions of Attachment ................... 1527 43.4 Time Scale of Attachment ............................. 1529 43.5 Principles of Biological Attachment .................. 1530 43.6 Locomotory Attachment Pads: Hairy Versus Smooth ...... 1533 43.7 Dry and Wet Systems .................................. 1535 43.8 Scaling Effects ...................................... 1536 43.1 Evolutionary Aspects ................................. 1537 43.10 Attachment Devices and Environment .................. 1537 43.11 Design Principles ................................... 1539 43.12 Biomimetics: Where We Are Now ....................... 1540 43.13 Conclusions ......................................... 1544 References ................................................ 1545 44 Gecko Feet: Natural Hairy Attachment Systems for Smart Adhesion Bharat Bhushan ............................................ 1553 44.1 Overview ............................................. 1554 44.2 Hairy Attachment Systems ............................. 1554 44.3 Tokay Gecko .......................................... 1556 44.4 Attachment Mechanisms ................................ 1561 44.5 Experimental Adhesion Test Techniques and Data ....... 1563 44.6 Adhesion Modeling .................................... 1566 44.7 Modeling of Biomimetic Fibrillar Structures .......... 1577 44.8 Fabrication of Biomimetic Gecko Skin ................. 1585 44.9 Conclusion ........................................... 1591 44.10 Typical Rough Surfaces .............................. 1593 References ................................................ 1594 Part G Industrial Applications 45 The Millipede - A Nanotechnology-Based AFM Data-Storage System Gerd K. Binnig, Giovanni Cherubini, Michel Despont, Urs T. Dürig, Evangelos Eleftheriou, Haralampos Pozidis, Peter Vettiger ............................................ 1601 45.1 The Millipede Concept ................................ 1603 45.2 Thermomechanical AFM Data Storage .................... 1604 45.3 Array Design, Technology, and Fabrication ............ 1606 45.4 Array Characterization ............................... 1607 45.5 Three-Terminal Cantilever Design ..................... 1609 45.6 x,y,z Medium Microscanner ............................ 1610 45.7 First Write/Read Results with the 32×32 Array Chip ... 1613 45.8 Polymer Medium ....................................... 1614 45.9 Read Channel Model ................................... 1621 45.10 System Aspects ...................................... 1624 45.11 Conclusions ......................................... 1629 References ................................................ 1630 46 Nanorobotics Bradley J. Nelson, Lixin Dong ............................. 1633 46.1 Overview of Nanorobotics ............................. 1634 46.2 Actuation at Nanoscales .............................. 1635 46.3 Nanorobotic Manipulation Systems ..................... 1637 46.4 Nanorobotic Assembly ................................. 1642 46.5 Applications ......................................... 1651 References ................................................ 1654 Part H Micro-/Nanodevice Reliability 47 MEMS/NEMS and BioMEMS/BioNEMS: Materials, Devices, and Biomimetics Bharat Bhushan ............................................ 1663 47.1 MEMS/NEMS Basics ..................................... 1664 47.2 Nanotribology and Nanomechanics Studies of Silicon and Related Materials ................................ 1683 47.3 Lubrication Studies for MEMS/NEMS .................... 1691 47.4 Nanotribological Studies of Biological Molecules on Silicon-Based and Polymer Surfaces and Submicron Particles for Therapeutics and Diagnostics ........... 1698 47.5 Surfaces with Roughness-Induced Superhydrophobicity, Self-Cleaning, and Low Adhesion ............................................. 1708 47.6 Component-Level Studies .............................. 1717 47.7 Conclusions .......................................... 1728 47.8 Micro-Nanofabrication Techniques ..................... 1729 References ................................................ 1733 48 Friction and Wear in Micro- and Nanomachines Maarten P. de Boer, Alex D. Corwin, Frank W. DelRio, W. Robert Ashurst ......................................... 1741 48.1 From Single- to Multiple-Asperity Friction ........... 1743 48.2 Nanotractor Device Description ....................... 1747 48.3 Concluding Remarks ................................... 1755 References ................................................ 1756 49 Failure Mechanisms in MEMS/NEMS Devices W. Merlijn van Spengen, Robert Modliñski, Robert Puers, Anne Jourdain ............................................. 1761 49.1 Failure Modes and Failure Mechanisms ................. 1762 49.2 Stiction and Charge-Related Failure Mechanisms ....... 1763 49.3 Creep, Fatigue, Wear, and Packaging-Related Failures ............................................. 1769 49.4 Conclusions .......................................... 1779 References ................................................ 1779 50 Mechanical Properties of Micromachined Structures Harold Kahn ............................................... 1783 50.1 Measuring Mechanical Properties of Films on Substrates ........................................... 1783 50.2 Micromachined Structures for Measuring Mechanical Properties ........................................... 1785 50.3 Measurements of Mechanical Properties ................ 1795 References ................................................ 1799 51 High-Volume Manufacturing and Field Stability of MEMS Products Jack Martin ............................................... 1803 51.1 Background ........................................... 1804 51.2 Manufacturing Strategy ............................... 1806 51.3 Robust Manufacturing ................................. 1808 51.4 Stable Field Performance ............................. 1825 References ................................................ 1828 52 Packaging and Reliability Issues in Micro-/Nanosystems Yu-Chuan Su, Jongbaeg Kim, Yu-Ting Cheng, Mu Chiao, Liwei Lin ................................................. 1835 52.1 Introduction MEMS Packaging .......................... 1835 52.2 Hermetic and Vacuum Packaging and Applications ....... 1841 52.3 Thermal Issues and Packaging Reliability ............. 1851 52.4 Future Trends and Summary ............................ 1858 References ................................................ 1859 Part I Technological Convergence and Governing Nanotechnology 53 Governing Nanotechnology: Social, Ethical and Human Issues William Sims Bainbridge ................................... 1867 53.1 Social Science Background ............................ 1867 53.2 Human Impacts of Nanotechnology ...................... 1871 53.3 Regulating Nanotechnology ............................ 1874 53.4 The Cultural Context for Nanotechnology .............. 1876 53.5 Conclusions .......................................... 1879 References ................................................ 1880 Acknowledgements ............................................. 1885 About the Authors ............................................ 1887 Subject Index ................................................ 1919