1 Medicinal Plants: A Renewable Resource for Novel Leads
and Drugs ................................................... 1
R. Verpoorte
1.1 Introduction .......................................... 2
1.2 Conclusion ............................................ 4
References .................................................. 5
2 The Chemical Diversity of Bioactive Molecules and
Therapeutic Potential of Medicinal Plants ................... 7
K.G. Ramawat, S. Dass and Meeta Mathur
2.1 Introduction .......................................... 7
2.2 Traditional Use of Medicinal Plants ................... 8
2.3 Ancient Systems of Medicine ........................... 9
2.3.1 Traditional Indian Medicine ................... 9
2.3.2 Traditional Chinese Medicine ................. 10
2.3.3 Traditional Egyptian Medicine ................ 11
2.3.4 Traditional Arabic Medicine .................. 11
2.3.5 African, European and Other Traditional
Systems of Medicine .......................... 11
2.4 Exploration of Medicinal Plants ...................... 12
2.5 Approaches to Drug Discovery ......................... 13
2.6 Bioactive Molecules of Medicinal Plants .............. 15
2.6.1 Alkaloids .................................... 16
2.6.2 Phenolics .................................... 21
2.6.3 Terpenes ..................................... 24
2.7 Conclusion ........................................... 29
References ................................................. 30
3 Indigenous People and Forests: Perspectives of an
Ethnobotanical Study from Rajasthan (India) ................ 33
S.S. Katewa
3.1 Introduction ......................................... 33
3.2 Study Site and People ................................ 35
3.3 Observations ......................................... 35
3.3.1 Healthcare .................................... 35
3.4 Wild Food Plants ..................................... 53
3.5 Conclusions .......................................... 54
References ................................................. 55
4 Ginseng and Male Sexual Behavior ........................... 57
Laura L. Murphy and James S. Ferraro
4.1 Introduction to Ginseng .............................. 58
4.2 Physiology of an Erection ............................ 58
4.3 Ginseng and Copulatory Behavior - Animal Studies ..... 60
4.4 Ginseng and Erectile Function ........................ 61
4.5 Nitric Oxide ......................................... 62
4.6 Central Nervous System Actions of Ginseng ............ 63
4.7 Conclusions .......................................... 64
References ................................................. 64
5 Herbal Treatments for Erectile Dysfunction ................. 67
Jyoti Shah
5.1 Introduction ......................................... 67
5.2 Herbal Treatments for ED ............................. 68
5.2.1 Cola acuminata ............................... 69
5.2.2 Damiana ...................................... 69
5.2.3 DHEA ......................................... 70
5.2.4 Fo-Ti ........................................ 70
5.2.5 Gamma-Butyrolactone (GBL) .................... 70
5.2.6 Ginkgo biloba ................................ 70
5.2.7 Ginseng ...................................... 71
5.2.8 Horny Goat Weed .............................. 72
5.2.9 L-Arginine ................................... 73
5.2.10 Maca ......................................... 74
5.2.11 Muira Puama .................................. 75
5.2.12 Propionly-L-Carnitine ........................ 75
5.2.13 Reishi ....................................... 76
5.2.14 Tongkat Ali .................................. 76
5.2.15 Tribulus ..................................... 77
5.2.16 Yohimbine .................................... 77
References ................................................. 79
6 Harpagophytum procumbens - Traditional Anti-inflammatory
Herbal Drug with Broad Therapeutic Potential ............... 81
G.P. McGregor
6.1 Introduction ......................................... 82
6.2 The Status and Use of Hp-Containing Products ......... 84
6.3 Chemical Constituents of Hp Extracts ................. 84
6.4 Pharmacological Properties ........................... 85
6.4.1 In Vivo Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Hp
Extracts and Harpagoside ..................... 86
6.4.2 In Vivo Analgesic Effects of Hp Extracts
and Harpagoside .............................. 87
6.4.3 Effects of Hp Extracts and Harpagoside on
Pro-Inflammatory Molecular Targets -
Eicanosoids, Cytokines, Second-Messenger
Pathways and Effector Molecules .............. 87
6.4.4 Possible Mode of Action of Hp ................ 90
6.5 Secondary Pharmacology of Hp ......................... 91
6.6 Clinical Studies of Hp ............................... 92
6.7 Toxicological Considerations ......................... 93
6.8 Concluding Remarks and Outlook ....................... 93
References ................................................. 94
7 The Role of Curcumin in Modern Medicine .................... 97
Gautam Sethi, Bokyung Sung and Bharat B. Aggarwal
1.1 Introduction ......................................... 97
7.2 Isolation and Chemical Properties of Curcumin ........ 98
7.3 Antioxidant Properties of Curcumin ................... 98
7.4 Molecular Targets of Curcumin ........................ 99
7.4.1 Cytokines and Growth Factors ................ 101
7.4.2 Receptors ................................... 101
7.4.3 Transcription Factors ....................... 102
7.4.4 Proinflammatory Enzymes ..................... 102
7.4.5 Protein Kinases ............................. 103
7.4.6 Cell Cycle .................................. 103
7.4.7 Adhesion Molecules .......................... 103
7.4.8 Antiapoptotic Proteins ...................... 104
7.4.9 Multidrug Resistance ........................ 104
7.5 Disease Targets of Curcumin ......................... 104
7.5.1 Anticancer Effects .......................... 104
7.5.2 Skin Diseases ............................... 107
7.5.3 Diabetes .................................... 107
7.5.4 Rheumatoid Arthritis ........................ 107
7.5.5 Multiple Sclerosis .......................... 108
7.5.6 Alzheimer's Disease ......................... 109
7.5.7 Inflammatory Bowel Disease .................. 109
7.5.8 Cystic Fibrosis ............................. 109
7.5.9 Others ...................................... 109
7.6 Structure Activity Relationship of Curcumin ......... 110
7.7 Conclusions ......................................... 110
References ................................................ 1ll
8 Proprietary Herbal Medicines in Circulatory Disorders:
Hawthorn, Ginkgo, Padma 28 ................................ 115
Jörg Melzer and Reinhard Saller
8.1 Introduction ........................................ 115
8.2 Hawthorn ............................................ 116
8.2.1 Plant ....................................... 116
8.2.2 Tradition ................................... 117
8.2.3 Chemistry and Pharmacology .................. 117
8.2.4 Clinical Evidence ........................... 119
8.2.5 Hawthorn Leaves and Flowers in CHF .......... 119
8.2.6 Hawthorn Berries in CHF ..................... 122
8.2.7 Safety ...................................... 123
8.2.8 Summary ..................................... 123
8.3 Padma 28 ............................................ 124
8.3.1 Plants ...................................... 124
8.3.2 Tradition ................................... 124
8.3.3 Chemistry and Pharmacology .................. 126
8.3.4 Clinical Evidence ........................... 127
8.3.5 Summary ..................................... 128
8.4 Ginkgo .............................................. 129
8.4.1 Plant ....................................... 129
8.4.2 Tradition ................................... 129
8.4.3 Chemistry and Pharmacology .................. 130
References ................................................ 132
9 The Effects of the Green Tea Polyphenol Epigallocatechm
Gallate on the Central Nervous, Endocrine, and Innate
Immune Systems ............................................ 137
Lisa A. Beltz
9.1 Introduction ........................................ 137
9.2 The Effects of EGCG on the Central Nervous System ... 138
9.2.1 Alzheimer's Disease ......................... 139
9.2.2 Parkinson's Disease ......................... 140
9.2.3 Huntington's Disease ........................ 141
9.2.4 Amyotropic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) .......... 142
9.2.5 Ischemic Conditions/Stroke .................. 142
9.2.6 Multiple Sclerosis .......................... 143
9.2.7 Anxiety ..................................... 143
9.2.8 Memory ...................................... 144
9.2.9 HIV-Associated Dementia (HAD) ............... 144
9.2.10 Neuronal Activity ........................... 144
9.2.11 Neurotransmitters and Their Receptors ....... 145
9.3 The Effects of EGCG on the Endocrine System
(Table 9.2) ......................................... 146
9.3.1 Production of Hormones and Consequent
Events ...................................... 146
9.3.2 Diseases Involving Insulin Alterations ...... 147
9.4 Effects of EGCG on Aspects of the Innate Immune
System .............................................. 148
9.4.1 Cytokine Production ......................... 148
9.4.2 The Role of Reactive Oxygen Species ......... 149
9.4.3 The Role of Reactive Nitrogen Species ....... 150
9.5 Conclusions ......................................... 150
References ................................................ 151
10 Natural Products in Cancer Chemoprevention and
Chemotherapy .............................................. 153
K.G. Ramawat and Shaily Goyal
10.1 Introduction ........................................ 153
10.2 Cancer Chemoprevention .............................. 155
10.3 Anticancer Drugs from Microorganisms ................ 158
10.4 Anticancer Drugs from Plants ........................ 159
10.4.1 Podophyllotoxins ............................ 159
10.4.2 Vinblastine ................................. 161
10.4.3 Taxol ....................................... 161
10.4.4 Camptothecin ................................ 163
10.4.5 Others ...................................... 163
10.5 Mechanism of Action ................................. 164
10.6 Herb-Drug Interactions .............................. 167
10.7 Conclusions ......................................... 168
References ................................................ 168
11 Artemisinin: A Versatile Weapon from Traditional Chinese
Medicine .................................................. 173
Thomas Efferth
11.1 Introduction ........................................ 174
11.2 Use of Artemisinin in Traditional Chinese
Medicine ............................................ 174
11.3 Mode of Action of Artemisinin ....................... 175
11.4 Activity Against Malaria ............................ 177
11.5 Activity Against Cancer ............................. 179
11.6 Activity Against Schistosomiasis .................... 181
11.7 Activity Against Viral Infections ................... 182
11.7.1 Human Cytomegalovirus ....................... 182
11.7.2 Human Hepatitis В Virus (HBV) ............... 184
11.7.3 Human Hepatitis С Virus (HCV) ............... 185
11.7.4 Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus (BVDV) .......... 186
11.7.5 Other Viruses ............................... 186
11.8 Side Effects of Artemisinin ......................... 187
11.9 Conclusion and Perspectives ......................... 188
References ................................................ 189
12 Anticancer and Immunomodulatory Properties of Tinospora ... 195
Anil Mittal and Rana P. Singh
12.1 Introduction ........................................ 196
12.2 Effect of Tinospora on Carcinogen/Drug Metabolism
and Antioxidant Systems ............................. 198
12.3 Anticancer Activity of Tinospora .................... 198
12.4 Tinospora Inhibits Tumor Angiogenesis ............... 199
12.5 Tinospora Inhibits Cancer Metastasis ................ 199
12.6 Radioprotective Potential of Tinospora .............. 200
12.7 Tinospora Activates Tumor-Associated Macrophages
of Dalton's Lymphoma ................................ 200
12.8 Immunostimulating Properties of Tinospora ........... 201
12.9 Mechanism of Macrophage Activation by (1 → 4)
α-D Glucan from Tinospora ........................... 201
12.10 G1-4A, an Immunomodulatory Polysaccharide from
Tinospora ........................................... 202
12.11 Hepatoprotective Properties of Tinospora ............ 203
12.12 Summary ............................................. 203
References ................................................ 204
13 Safety and Efficacy of Phytomedicines in Cancer
Prevention and Treatment .................................. 207
Giuseppina Benoni and Laura Cuzzolin
13.1 Introduction ........................................ 207
13.1.1 Reasons for Using Phytomedicines in Cancer
Treatment and Prevention .................... 208
13.2 Methods ............................................. 209
13.3 Epidemiological data ................................ 209
13.4 Herbs Commonly Used in Cancer Treatment and
Prevention .......................................... 210
13.5 Herbs for Treating the Side Effects of
Chemotherapy and Radiation .......................... 212
13.6 Safety Data of Herbal Compounds in Cancer
Patients ............................................ 214
13.7 Conclusions ......................................... 217
References ................................................ 218
14 Novel Leads from Herbal Drugs for Neurodegenerative
Diseases .................................................. 221
Maheep Bhatnagar
14.1 Introduction ........................................ 221
14.2 Ayurveda, Herbal Drugs, and the Central Nervous
System .............................................. 222
14.3 Neurodegenerative Diseases .......................... 224
14.4 Medicinal Plants, Neurodegenerative Diseases, and
Therapeutics ........................................ 226
14.5 Plants Native to India .............................. 229
14.5.1 Acorus calamus .............................. 229
14.5.2 Asparagus racemosus ......................... 229
14.5.3 Bacopa monnieri ............................. 229
14.5.4 Celastrus peniculatus ....................... 230
14.5.5 Centella asiatica ........................... 230
14.5.6 Convolvulus pleuricaulis .................... 230
14.5.7 Crocus sativus .............................. 231
14.5.8 Curculigo orchioides ........................ 231
14.5.9 Curcuma longa ............................... 231
14.5.10 Cyprus rotundus ............................. 232
14.5.11 Ficus religiosa ............................. 232
14.5.12 Ginkgo biloba ............................... 232
14.5.13 Mucuna pruriens ............................. 233
14.5.14 Nardostachys jatamanasi ..................... 233
14.5.15 Plumbago zeylanica .......................... 233
14.5.16 Semecarpus anacardium ....................... 234
14.5.17 Swertia chirayita ........................... 234
14.5.18 Withania somnifera .......................... 234
14.6 Plants not Native to India .......................... 235
14.6.1 Galanthus wornorii .......................... 235
14.6.2 Huperzine serrata ........................... 235
14.6.3 Lavandula stoechas .......................... 235
14.7 Conclusion .......................................... 236
References ................................................ 236
15 Traditional Medicine for Memory Enhancement ............... 239
Melanie-Jayne R. Howes and Peter J. Houghton
15.1 Introduction ........................................ 240
15.1.1 Cognitive Disorders ......................... 240
15.1.2 Alzheimer's Disease ......................... 241
15.1.3 Cholinergic Function ........................ 241
15.1.4 Symptoms Related to Memory Disorders in
Traditional Practices of Medicine ........... 242
15.2 Activities Relevant to the Treatment of Cognitive
Disorders ........................................... 243
15.2.1 Precursors of Acetylcholine ................. 243
15.2.2 Muscarinic Receptor Stimulation ............. 243
15.2.3 Nicotinic Receptor Stimulation/Nicotinic
Agonists .................................... 244
15.2.4 Cholinesterase Inhibitors ................... 245
15.2.5 Anti-Inflammatory Activity .................. 245
15.2.6 Antioxidant Activity ........................ 246
15.2.7 Estrogenic Activity ......................... 247
15.2.8 NMDA Antagonists ............................ 249
15.3 Plants as a Source of Useful Therapeutic Agents in
Cognitive Diseases .................................. 249
15.4 Plants Used in Traditional Ayurvedic Medicine ....... 250
15.4.1 Areca catechu L ............................. 250
15.4.2 Bacopa monniera Wettst ...................... 251
15.4.3 Centella asiatica (L.) Urb .................. 252
15.4.4 Celastrus paniculatus Willd ................. 253
15.4.5 Clitoria ternatea L ......................... 254
15.4.6 Curcuma longa L ............................. 255
15.4.7 Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal ............... 256
15.5 Plants Used in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) ... 259
15.5.1 Evodia rutaecarpa (Juss.) Benth ............. 259
15.5.2 Ginkgo biloba L ............................. 260
15.5.3 Huperzia serrata (Thunb.) Trevis ............ 263
15.5.4 Magnolia officinalis Rehder & E.H. Wilson ... 265
15.5.5 Polygala tenuifolia Willd ................... 266
15.5.6 Salvia miltiorhiza Bunge .................... 268
15.6 Plants Used in Traditional European Medicine ........ 271
15.6.1 Galanthus and Narcissus Species ............. 271
15.6.2 Melissa officinalis L ....................... 272
15.6.3 Salvia officinalis L. and S.
lavandulifolia Vahl ......................... 274
15.7 Plants Used in African and South American
Traditional Medicine ................................ 276
15.7.1 Physostigma venenosum Balf .................. 276
15.7.2 Pilocarpus Species .......................... 277
15.7.3 Ptychopetalum olacoides Benth ............... 278
15.8 Conclusions ......................................... 279
References ................................................ 280
16 Neuroprotective Herbs for Stroke .......................... 293
Hocheol Kim
16.1 Introduction ........................................ 294
16.2 Stroke Therapy in Traditional Medicine .............. 295
16.3 Neuroprotective Herbs for Stroke .................... 296
16.4 Single Herb Extracts and Their Active Compounds ..... 300
16.4.1 Panax ginseng ............................... 300
16.4.2 Salvia miltiorrhiza ......................... 302
16.4.3 Ginkgo biloba ............................... 302
16.4.4 Acanthopanax senticosus ..................... 303
16.4.5 Scutellaria baicalensis ..................... 304
16.4.6 Camellia sinensis (Green tea) ............... 304
16.4.7 Pueraria thunbergiana, P. lobata ............ 304
16.4.8 Cnidium officinale, Ligusticum chuanxiong ... 305
16.4.9 Magnolia officinalis ........................ 306
16.4.10 Angelica gigas, A. sinensis ................. 306
16.4.11 Rhodiola rosea .............................. 307
16.4.12 Paeonia suffruticosa, P. lactiflora ......... 307
16.4.13 Bombycis Corpus ............................. 307
16.4.14 Corydalis yanhusuo .......................... 308
16.4.15 Acorus gramineus ............................ 308
16.4.16 Coptis japonica ............................. 309
16.4.17 Phellodendri cortex ......................... 309
16.4.18 Huperzia serrata ............................ 309
16.4.19 Menispermum dauricum ........................ 310
16.4.20 Gardenia jasminoides ........................ 310
16.4.21 Uncaria rhynchophylla ....................... 310
16.4.22 Schisandra chinensis ........................ 311
16.4.23 Carthamus tinctorius ........................ 311
16.4.24 Other Herbs ................................ 311
16.5 Multiherb Extracts .................................. 312
16.5.1 Huanglianjiedu Decoction .................... 312
16.5.2 Buyanghuanwu Decoction ...................... 313
16.5.3 Woohwangchungsim-won ........................ 313
16.5.4 Shengmaisan ................................. 314
16.5.5 Qizhu Decoction ............................. 314
16.6 Conclusion .......................................... 314
References ................................................ 315
17 Biological Activity of Ginkgo ............................. 321
Ján Lehotský, Peter Kaplan, Martina Pavlikova, Peter
Urban and Beata Saniova
17.1 Introduction ........................................ 321
17.2 Phamacokinetics ..................................... 322
17.3 Treatment of Cerebral Ischemia ...................... 323
17.3.1 Antioxidant/Scavanger Action ................ 323
17.3.2 Other Anti-Ischemic Effects ................. 327
References ................................................ 330
18 Vitamin E Metabolic Modulation in Plants .................. 333
Guo Juan, Gongshe Liu, Chen Shuangyan and Amina A. Aly
18.1 Introduction ........................................ 334
18.2 Vitamin E History ................................... 336
18.3 Vitamin E Structure ................................. 336
18.4 Vitamin E Biosynthetic Pathway in Plants ............ 337
18.5 Strategies for Vitamin E Metabolic Engineering in
Plants .............................................. 339
18.6 Isolation and Identification of Genes in the
Vitamin E Biosynthetic Pathway ...................... 340
18.7 Engineering Plants to Improve Vitamin E Content ..... 343
18.8 Engineered Plants to Modulate Vitamin E
Composition ......................................... 347
18.9 Conclusions and Perspectives ........................ 348
References ................................................ 349
19 Herbal Drugs of Abuse ..................................... 353
Jochen Beyer, Olaf H. Drummer and H.C. Hans H. Maurer
19.1 Introduction ........................................ 354
19.2 Historical Background of Herbal Drugs of Abuse ...... 354
19.3 Classical Herbal Drugs of Abuse ..................... 356
19.3.1 Cannabis and Tetrahydrocannabinol ........... 356
19.3.2 Coca and Cocaine ............................ 357
19.3.3 Poppies and Opiates ......................... 360
19.4 Current Herbal Drugs of Abuse ....................... 361
19.4.1 Nightshades ................................. 361
19.4.2 Ayahuasca ................................... 362
19.4.3 Morning Glory and Lysergic Acid Amide ....... 362
19.4.4 Ephedra and Kath ............................ 363
19.4.5 Iboga ....................................... 364
19.4.6 Nutmeg ...................................... 364
19.4.7 Salvia divinorum ............................ 365
19.4.8 Kava ........................................ 366
References ................................................ 367
20 Biological Activities of Kinetin .......................... 369
Kalina Duszka, Brian F.C. Clark, Frank Massino and Jan
Barciszewski
20.1 Introduction ........................................ 370
20.2 Kinetin Occurrence, Structure, and Chemical
Properties .......................................... 370
20.3 Synthesis and Modification of Kinetin ............... 371
20.4 Biological Activities of Kinetin .................... 372
20.4.1 Influence of Kinetin on Plants .............. 372
20.4.2 Influence of Kinetin on Animals ............. 374
20.5 Perspectives ........................................ 378
References ................................................ 379
21 Safety Issues of Phytomedicines in Pregnancy and
Paediatrics ............................................... 381
Laura Cuzzolin and Giuseppina Benoni
21.1 Introduction ........................................ 382
21.2 Methods ............................................. 382
21.3 Herbal Products in Pregnancy ........................ 382
21.3.1 Epidemiological Data ........................ 383
21.3.2 Herbs Commonly Used during Pregnancy ........ 384
21.3.3 Safety Data ................................. 385
21.4 Herbal Products in Paediatrics ...................... 388
21.4.1 Epidemiological Data ........................ 388
21.4.2 Herbs Commonly Used in Children ............. 390
21.4.3 Safety Data ................................. 391
21.5 Conclusions ......................................... 393
References ................................................ 394
Idex .......................................................... 397
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