Preface ................................................... ХIII
Acknowledgments ............................................. xv
Chapter 1. Basic Optics and Optical System Specifications ...... 1
The Purpose of an Imaging Optical System ..................... 1
How to Specify Your Optical System: Basic Parameters ......... 4
Basic Definition of Terms ................................... 11
Useful First-Order Relationships ............................ 15
Chapter 2. Stops and Pupils and Other Basic Principles ........ 29
The Role of the Aperture Stop ............................... 29
Entrance and Exit Pupils .................................... 31
Vignetting .................................................. 32
Chapter 3. Diffraction, Aberrations, and Image Quality ........ 35
What Image Quality Is All About ............................. 35
What Are Geometrical Aberrations and Where Do They Come
From? .................................................... 36
What Is Diffraction? ........................................ 40
Diffraction-Limited Performance ............................. 43
Derivation of System Specifications ......................... 45
Chapter 4. The Concept of Optical Path Difference ............. 49
Optical Path Difference (OPD) and the Rayleigh Criteria ..... 49
Peak-to-Valley and RMS Wavefront Error ...................... 52
The Wave Aberration Polynomial .............................. 55
Depth of Focus .............................................. 56
Chapter 5. Review of Specific Geometrical Aberrations and
How to Get Rid of Them ............................. 59
Spherical Aberration ........................................ 60
Coma ........................................................ 72
Astigmatism ................................................. 75
Field Curvature and the Role of Field Lenses ................ 78
Distortion .................................................. 85
Axial Color ................................................. 89
Lateral Color ............................................... 90
Parametric Analysis of Aberrations Introduced by Plane
Parallel Plates .......................................... 91
Chapter 6. Glass Selection (Including Plastics) ............... 95
Material Properties Overview ................................ 95
The Glass Map and Partial Dispersion ........................ 96
Parametric Examples of Glass Selection ..................... 102
How to Select Glass ........................................ 106
Plastic Optical Materials .................................. 109
A Visual Aid to Glass Selection ............................ 111
Chapter 7. Spherical and Aspheric Surfaces ................... 115
Definition of an Aspheric Surface .......................... 115
Conic Surfaces ............................................. 117
Application of Aspheric Surfaces in Reflective and
Refractive Systems ...................................... 119
Guidelines in the Use of Aspheric Surfaces ................. 124
Specification of Aspheric Surfaces ......................... 126
Chapter 8. Design Forms ...................................... 129
Introduction ............................................... 129
System Configurations for Refractive Systems ............... 131
System Configurations for Reflective Systems ............... 138
Reflective Systems, Relative Merits ........................ 144
Refractive Systems, Relative Merits ........................ 146
Mirrors and Prisms ......................................... 147
Design of Visual Systems ................................... 155
Chapter 9. The Optical Design Process ........................ 167
What Do We Do When We Optimize a Lens System? .............. 168
How Does the Designer Approach the Optical Design Task? .... 171
Sample Lens Design Problem ................................. 176
Chapter 10. Computer Performance Evaluation ................... 179
What Is Meant by Performance Evaluation .................... 179
What Is Resolution? ........................................ 180
Ray Trace Curves ........................................... 181
Spot Diagrams .............................................. 187
Optical Path Difference .................................... 189
Encircled Energy ........................................... 189
MTF ........................................................ 191
Chapter 11. Gaussian Beam Imagery ............................. 199
Beam Waist and Beam Divergence ............................. 201
Collimation of Laser Beams ................................. 203
Propagation of Gaussian Beams and Focusing into a Small
Spot .................................................... 204
Truncation of a Gaussian Beam .............................. 205
Application of Gaussian Beam Optics in Laser Systems ....... 208
F-6 Lenses in Laser Scanners ............................... 211
Chapter 12. Basics of Thermal Infrared Imaging in the 3- to
5- and 8- to 12-цт Spectral Bands (Plus UV
Optics] ........................................... 213
The Basics of Thermal Infrared Imaging ..................... 213
The Dewar, Cold Stop, and Cold Shield ...................... 217
Cold Stop Efficiency ....................................... 219
Scanning Methods ........................................... 222
IR Materials ............................................... 229
Reduced Aberrations with IR Materials ...................... 236
Image Anomalies ............................................ 239
Athermalization ............................................ 246
System Design Examples ..................................... 250
Optical Systems for the UV ................................. 255
Chapter 13. Diffractive Optics ............................... 259
Introduction ............................................... 259
The Many Faces of Diffractive Optics ....................... 262
What Design and Modeling Tools Should I Use? ............... 277
How Are Diffractives Fabricated? ........................... 287
Where Are Diffractives Used? ............................... 308
References ................................................. 318
Chapter 14. Design of Illumination Systems ................... 321
Introduction ............................................... 321
Kohler and Abbe Illumination ............................... 322
Optical Invariant and Etendue .............................. 324
Other Types of Illumination Systems ........................ 329
Chapter 15. Performance Evaluation and Optical Testing ....... 333
Testing with the Standard 1951 U.S. Air Force Target ....... 333
The Modulation Transfer Function ........................... 337
Interferometry ............................................. 340
Other Tests ................................................ 344
Chapter 16. Tolerancing and Producibility .................... 347
Introduction ............................................... 347
What Are Testplates and Why Are They Important? ............ 348
How to Tolerance an Optical System ......................... 353
How Image Degradations from Different Tolerances Are
Summed .................................................. 356
Forms of Tolerances ........................................ 359
Adjusting Parameters ....................................... 364
Typical Tolerances for Various Cost Models ................. 366
Example of Tolerance Analysis .............................. 367
Surface Irregularities ..................................... 374
How Does Correlation Relate to Performance? ................ 376
Effect to Spot Diameter .................................... 377
Effect to MTF: The Optical Quality Factor .................. 379
Beam Diameter and Surface Irregularity ..................... 383
The Final Results .......................................... 384
Chapter 17. Optomechanical Design ............................. 389
Environmental Considerations ............................... 389
Applicable Design Guidelines ............................... 393
Environmental Testing Methods .............................. 393
Mechanical Parameters and Properties ....................... 393
Typical Mechanical Property Values for Selected
Materials ............................................... 394
Structural Design .......................................... 396
Vibration, Self-Weight Deflection, and Fundamental
Frequency ............................................... 398
Shock ...................................................... 400
Rigid Housing Configurations ............................... 400
Modular Construction ....................................... 401
Support Structure Configurations ........................... 405
Establishing Axial and Lateral Preload Requirements ........ 414
Spherical and Crowned Lens Rims ............................ 415
Interfaces for Other Optical Components .................... 416
Individual Lens Mounting Techniques ........................ 419
Surface Contact Interface Shapes ........................... 426
Mounting Windows, Shells, and Domes ........................ 429
Stress Consequences of Axial Preload ....................... 434
Temperature Effects on Axial Preload ....................... 436
Radial Stresses and Their Variations with Temperature ...... 439
Bending Effects in Rotationally Symmetric Optics ........... 439
Multiple-Component Lens Assemblies ......................... 441
Incorporating Prisms into the Design ....................... 452
Mirror Mountings ........................................... 459
Mechanical Athermalization Techniques ...................... 467
References ................................................. 476
Chapter 18. Optical Manufacturing Considerations ............. 479
Material ................................................... 480
Manufacturing .............................................. 485
Special Fabrication Considerations ......................... 492
Relative Manufacturing Cost ................................ 502
Sourcing Considerations .................................... 502
Conclusion ................................................. 504
Chapter 19. Polarization Issues in Optical Design ............ 507
Introduction ............................................... 507
Introduction to Polarization ............................... 508
The Mathematical Description of Polarized Light ............ 513
Some Polarization Phenomena ................................ 523
Polarization Control Nuts and Bolts ........................ 535
Polarization Analysis of an Optical System ................. 555
Minimizing Polarization Problems in Optical Design ......... 559
Polarization as a Tool in Optical System Design ............ 560
Summary .................................................... 565
Bibliography ............................................... 567
Chapter 20. Optical Thin Films ................................ 569
Introduction ............................................... 569
Designing Optical Coatings ................................. 570
Various Categories of Optical Coatings ..................... 571
Optical Coating Process .................................... 578
Coating Performance Versus Number of Layers ................ 582
Specifying Coating Requirements ............................ 583
Relationship Between Production Cost, Tolerances, and
Quality ................................................. 584
Bibliography ............................................... 585
Chapter 21. Hardware Design Issues ............................ 587
Off-the-Shelf Optics ....................................... 587
How to Effectively Work with Off-the-Shelf Optics .......... 589
Working with Off-the-Shelf Singlets and Doublets ........... 590
Example of Lens Used at Conjugates Different from What It
Was Designed ............................................ 591
Pupil Matching ............................................. 594
Development of a Lab Mockup Using Off-the-Shelf Optics ..... 595
Stray Light Control ........................................ 595
Optomechanical Design ...................................... 600
Chapter 22. Lens Design Optimization Case Studies ............. 603
Error Function Construction ................................ 603
Achromatic Doublet Lens Design ............................. 605
Double Gauss Lens Design ................................... 610
Digital Camera Lens ........................................ 632
Binocular Design ........................................... 642
Parametric Design Study of Simple Lenses Using Advanced
Manufacturing Methods ................................... 646
Design Data for Double Gauss ............................... 655
Chapter 23. Optical Sensor Systems Modeling and Analysis ...... 659
Introduction ............................................... 659
Image Formation ............................................ 660
Detector Arrays ............................................ 663
Optical System Noise Characteristics ....................... 669
Color Sensors .............................................. 691
Electronic Correction ...................................... 696
Camera Connectivity ........................................ 697
Bibliography ............................................... 701
Chapter 24. Stray Light and Optical Scattering ................ 703
Introduction ............................................... 703
Stray Light Scatter Sources ................................ 703
Types of Scatter ........................................... 711
Modeling and Analysis Techniques ........................... 713
Veiling Glare .............................................. 715
Cleanliness ................................................ 716
Suppression Techniques ..................................... 717
Bright Field and Dark Field ................................ 731
How to Avoid Unwanted Stray Light .......................... 736
Bibliography ............................................... 737
Color Sensors .............................................. 691
Electronic Correction ...................................... 696
Camera Connectivity ........................................ 697
Bibliography ............................................... 701
Introduction ............................................... 703
Stray Light Scatter Sources ................................ 703
Types of Scatter ........................................... 711
Modeling and Analysis Techniques ........................... 713
Veiling Glare .............................................. 715
Cleanliness ................................................ 716
Suppression Techniques ..................................... 717
Bright Field and Dark Field ................................ 731
How to Avoid Unwanted Stray Light .......................... 736
Bibliography ............................................... 737
Chapter 25. Bloopers and Blunders in Optics ................... 739
Distortion in a 1:1 Imaging Lens ........................... 739
Zoom Periscope ............................................. 740
Sign of Distortion ......................................... 742
Lens Elements That Are Not Necessary ....................... 744
Pupil Problems ............................................. 744
Not Enough Light ........................................... 745
Athermalization Using Teflon ............................... 746
Athermalization Specifications ............................. 746
Bad Glass Choice ........................................... 747
Elements in Backward ....................................... 747
Insufficient Sampling of Fields of View or Aperture ........ 748
Images Upside Down or Rotated .............................. 749
The Hubble Telescope Null Lens Problem ..................... 750
Wrong Glass Type in a Precision Lens System ................ 755
Single Use Camera with a Diffractive Achromat .............. 755
Wrong Image Handedness ..................................... 756
Cemented Triplet as Part of an Imaging System .............. 757
Total Internal Reflection in a Cube Beamsplitter ........... 758
Diffractive Optics Issues .................................. 760
Case of the Miscoated Mangin ............................... 763
Telescopes and Polarization ................................ 765
Chapter 26. Rule of Thumb and Hints .................... 767
General Optical Design Topics .............................. 767
Optomechanical Topics ...................................... 770
Diffractive Optics ......................................... 772
Glossary ................................................... 775
Bibliography ............................................... 785
Index ...................................................... 787
|
