Preface to First Edition ..................................... xiii
Preface to Second Edition ...................................... xv
Preface to Third Edition ..................................... xvii
Acknowledgments ............................................... xix
Part I The Periglacial Domain ................................... 1
1 Introduction .................................................. 3
1.1 The Periglacial Concept ................................. 3
1.2 Disciplinary Considerations ............................. 7
1.2.1 The Growth of Geocryology ........................ 7
1.2.2 The Changing Nature of Quaternary Science ........ 8
1.2.3 Modern Periglacial Geomorphology ................. 8
1.3 The Growth of Periglacial Knowledge ..................... 9
1.4 The Periglacial Domain ................................. 11
1.5 The Scope of Periglacial Geomorphology ................. 13
1.5.1 Permafrost-Related Processes and Landforms ...... 13
1.5.2 Azonal Processes and Landforms .................. 14
1.5.3 Paleo-Environmental Reconstruction .............. 14
1.5.4 Applied Periglacial Geomorphology ............... 14
Advanced Reading ............................................. 15
Discussion Topics ............................................ 15
2 Periglacial Landscapes? ...................................... 16
2.1 Introduction ........................................... 16
2.2 Proglacial, Paraglacial or Periglacial? ................ 16
2.3 Unglaciated Periglacial Terrain ........................ 18
2.3.1 Beaufort Plain, Northwest Banks Island, Arctic
Canada .......................................... 18
2.3.2 Barn Mountains, Northern Interior Yukon
Territory, Canada ............................... 22
2.4 Relict Periglacial Landscapes .......................... 25
2.4.1 Chalk Uplands, Southern England and Northern
France .......................................... 25
2.4.2 Pine Barrens, Southern New Jersey, Eastern
USA ............................................. 26
2.5 Conclusions ............................................ 28
Advanced Reading ............................................ 28
Discussion Topics ........................................... 30
3 Periglacial Climates ......................................... 31
3.1 Boundary Conditions .................................... 31
3.2 Periglacial Climates ................................... 32
3.2.1 High Arctic Climates ............................ 34
3.2.2 Continental Climates ............................ 38
3.2.3 Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau .................. 38
3.2.4 Alpine Climates ................................. 39
3.2.5 Climates of Low Annual Temperature Range ........ 39
3.2.6 Antarctica: A Special Case ...................... 40
3.3 Ground Climates ........................................ 40
3.3.1 Then-Factor ..................................... 41
3.3.2 The Thermal Offset .............................. 42
3.4 Periglacial Climates and the Cryosphere ................ 44
Advanced Reading ............................................ 45
Discussion Topics ........................................... 46
Part II Present-Day Periglacial Environments ................... 47
4 Cold-Climate Weathering ..................................... 49
4.1 Introduction ........................................... 49
4.2 Ground Freezing ........................................ 49
4.2.1 The Freezing Process ............................ 50
4.2.2 Ice Segregation ................................. 52
4.2.3 The Frozen Fringe ............................... 53
4.2.4 Frost Heave ..................................... 54
4.3 Freezing and Thawing ................................... 55
4.4 The Ground-Temperature Regime .......................... 57
4.4.1 The Seasonal Regime ............................. 57
4.4.2 Short-Term Fluctuations ......................... 60
4.5 Rock (Frost?) Shattering ............................... 60
4.5.1 Frost Action and Ice Segregation ................ 61
4.5.2 Frost Weathering Models ......................... 63
4.5.3 Insolation Weathering and Thermal Shock ......... 64
4.5.4 Discussion and Perspective ...................... 67
4.6 Chemical Weathering .................................... 68
4.6.1 General ......................................... 68
4.6.2 Solution and Karstification ..................... 69
4.6.3 Salt Weathering ................................. 72
4.7 Cryogenic Weathering ................................... 75
4.8 Cryobiological Weathering .............................. 79
4.9 Cryopedology ........................................... 79
4.9.1 Cryosols ........................................ 80
4.9.2 Soil Micromorphology ............................ 81
Advanced Reading ................................ 82
Discussion Topics ............................... 82
5 Permafrost .................................................. 83
5.1 Introduction ........................................... 83
5.1.1 Definition ...................................... 83
5.1.2 Moisture and Ice within Permafrost .............. 85
5.2 Thermal and Physical Properties ........................ 85
5.2.1 The Geothermal Regime ........................... 86
5.2.2 Physical Properties ............................. 89
5.2.3 Thermal Properties ............................... 90
5.3 How Does Permafrost Aggrade? ........................... 90
5.3.1 General Principles .............................. 91
5.3.2 The Illisarvik Drained-Lake Experiment .......... 92
5.4 Distribution of Permafrost ............................. 94
5.4.1 Latitudinal Permafrost .......................... 95
5.4.2 Alpine (Mountain) Permafrost .................... 98
5.4.3 Montane Permafrost of Central Asia and China ... 101
5.5 Relict Permafrost ..................................... 103
5.5.1 Sub-Sea Permafrost ............................. 103
5.5.2 Relict (Terrestrial) Permafrost ................ 103
5.6 Permafrost Hydrology .................................. 104
5.6.1 Aquifers ....................................... 105
5.6.2 Hydrochemistry ................................. 106
5.6.3 Groundwater Icings ............................. 106
5.7 Permafrost and Terrain Conditions ..................... 107
5.7.1 Relief and Aspect .............................. 107
5.7.2 Rock Type ...................................... 108
5.7.3 Vegetation ..................................... 108
5.7.4 Snow Cover ..................................... 109
5.7.5 Fire ........................................... 110
5.7.6 Lakes and Surface Water Bodies ................. 111
5.8 The Active Layer ...................................... 111
5.8.1 The Transient Layer ............................ 112
5.8.2 The Stefan Equation ............................ 114
5.8.3 Active-Layer Thermal Regime .................... 114
Advanced Reading ........................................... 115
Discussion Topics .......................................... 115
6 Surface Features of Permafrost ............................. 116
6.1 Introduction .......................................... 116
6.2 Thermal-Contraction-Crack Polygons .................... 116
6.2.1 Coefficients of Thermal Expansion and
Contraction .................................... 116
6.2.2 Ice, Sand, and Soil Wedges ..................... 117
6.2.3 Development of the Polygon Net ................. 119
6.2.4 Polygon Morphology ............................. 121
6.2.5 Controls Over Cracking ......................... 123
6.2.6 Climatic Significance .......................... 124
6.3 Organic Terrain ....................................... 127
6.3.1 Palsas ......................................... 128
6.3.2 Peat Plateaus .................................. 129
6.4 Rock Glaciers ......................................... 129
6.4.1 Creeping Permafrost ............................ 130
6.4.2 Types and Distribution ......................... 131
6.4.3 Origin ......................................... 131
6.5 Frost Mounds .......................................... 134
6.5.1 Perennial-Frost Mounds ......................... 134
6.5.2 Hydraulic (Open) System Pingos ................. 136
6.5.3 Hydrostatic (Closed) System Pingos ............. 137
6.5.4 Other Perennial-Frost Mounds ................... 140
6.5.5 Seasonal-Frost Mounds .......................... 140
6.5.6 Hydrolaccoliths and Other Frost-Induced
Mounds ......................................... 142
6.6 Active-Layer Phenomena ................................ 142
6.6.1 Bedrock Heave .................................. 143
6.6.2 Needle Ice ..................................... 144
6.6.3 Cryoturbation and Frost Heave .................. 144
6.6.4 Frost Sorting .................................. 146
6.6.5 Patterned Ground ............................... 148
Advanced Reading ........................................... 152
Discussion Topics .......................................... 152
7 Ground Ice ................................................. 153
7.1 Introduction .......................................... 153
7.2 Classification ........................................ 154
7.2.1 Pore Ice ....................................... 156
7.2.2 Segregated Ice ................................. 157
7.2.3 Intrusive Ice .................................. 158
7.2.4 Vein Ice ....................................... 159
7.2.5 Other Types of Ice ............................. 159
7.3 Ice Distribution ...................................... 159
7.3.1 Amounts ........................................ 159
7.3.2 Distribution with Depth ........................ 161
7.3.3 Ice in Bedrock ................................. 162
7.3.4 Ice in Unconsolidated Sediments ................ 162
7.4 Cryostratigraphy and Cryolithology .................... 164
7.4.1 Cryostructures, Cryotextures, and Cryofacies ... 165
7.4.2 Epigenetic and Syngenetic Cryostructures ....... 167
7.4.3 Thaw Unconformities ............................ 171
7.4.4 Ice Crystallography ............................ 173
7.4.5 Ice Geochemistry ............................... 173
7.4.6 Cryostratigraphy and Past Environments ......... 175
7.5 Ice Wedges ............................................ 176
7.5.1 Epigenetic Wedges .............................. 177
7.5.2 Syngenetic Wedges .............................. 179
7.5.3 Anti-Syngenetic Wedges ......................... 180
7.6 Massive Ice and Massive-Icy Bodies .................... 181
7.6.1 Nature and Extent .............................. 181
7.6.2 Intra-Sedimental Ice ........................... 183
7.6.3 Buried Glacier Ice ............................. 184
7.6.4 Other Mechanisms ............................... 184
Advanced Reading ........................................... 184
Discussion Topics .......................................... 185
8 Thermokarst ................................................ 186
8.1 Introduction .......................................... 186
8.2 Causes of Thermokarst ................................. 187
8.2.1 General ........................................ 187
8.2.2 Specific ....................................... 189
8.3 Thaw-Related Processes ................................ 191
8.3.1 Thermokarst Subsidence ......................... 191
8.3.2 Thermal Erosion ................................ 191
8.3.3 Other Processes ................................ 193
8.4 Thermokarst Sediments and Structures .................. 193
8.4.1 Involuted Sediments ............................ 193
8.4.2 Retrogressive-Thaw-Slumps and Debris-Flow
Deposits ....................................... 194
8.4.3 Ice-Wedge Pseudomorphs and Composite-Wedge
Casts .......................................... 195
8.4.4 Ice, Silt, Sand, and Gravel Pseudomorphs ....... 198
8.5 Ice-Wedge Thermokarst Relief .......................... 198
8.5.1 Low-Centered Polygons .......................... 198
8.5.2 High-Centered Polygons ......................... 200
8.5.3 Badland Thermokarst Relief ..................... 201
8.6 Thaw Lakes and Depressions ............................ 201
8.6.1 Morphology ..................................... 203
8.6.2 Growth and Drainage ............................ 203
8.6.3 Oriented Thaw Lakes ............................ 205
8.7 Thermokarst-Affected Terrain .......................... 206
8.7.1 The Lowlands of Central and Northern Siberia ... 207
8.7.2 The Western North American Arctic .............. 209
8.8 Human-Induced Thermokarst ............................. 210
8.8.1 Causes ......................................... 210
8.8.2 Case Studies ................................... 213
Advanced Reading ........................................... 215
Discussion Topics .......................................... 215
9 Hillslope Processes and Slope Evolution .................... 216
9.1 Introduction .......................................... 216
9.2 Slope Morphology ...................................... 216
9.2.1 The Free-Face Model ............................ 217
9.2.2 Rectilinear Debris-Mantled Slopes .............. 218
9.2.3 Convexo-Concavo Debris-Mantled Slopes .......... 219
9.2.4 Pediment-Like Slopes ........................... 221
9.2.5 Stepped Profiles ............................... 223
9.3 Mass Wasting .......................................... 224
9.4 Slow Mass-Wasting Processes ........................... 225
9.4.1 Solifiuction ................................... 225
9.4.2 Frost Creep .................................... 227
9.4.3 Gelifluction ................................... 228
9.4.4 Solifiuction Deposits and Phenomena ............ 229
9.5 Rapid Mass Wasting .................................... 232
9.5.1 Active-Layer-Detachment Slides ................. 232
9.5.2 Debris Flows, Slushflows, and Avalanches ....... 233
9.5.3 Rockfall ....................................... 235
9.6 Slopewash ............................................. 237
9.6.1 Snow-Bank Hydrology ............................ 238
9.6.2 Surface and Subsurface Wash .................... 239
9.7 Frozen and Thawing Slopes ............................. 241
9.7.1 Permafrost Creep ............................... 241
9.7.2 Thermokarst and Thaw Consolidation ............. 242
9.7.3 Stability of Thawing Slopes .................... 243
9.8 Cold-Climate Slope Evolution .......................... 244
9.8.1 Cryoplanation .................................. 244
9.8.2 Slope Replacement and Richter Denudation
Slopes ......................................... 246
9.8.3 Rapidity of Profile Change ..................... 246
9.8.4 Summary ........................................ 247
Advanced Reading ........................................... 247
Discussion Topics .......................................... 247
10 Azonal Processes and Landforms ............................. 248
10.1 Introduction .......................................... 248
10.2 Fluvial Processes and Landforms ....................... 248
10.2.1 Major Rivers ................................... 249
10.2.2 Freeze-Up and Break-Up ......................... 251
10.2.3 Basin Hydrology ................................ 254
10.2.4 Sediment Flow, Surface Transport, and
Denudation ..................................... 257
10.2.5 Fluvio-Thermal Erosion ......................... 260
10.2.6 Channel Morphology ............................. 260
10.2.7 Valley Asymmetry ............................... 263
10.3 Eolian Processes and Sediments ........................ 264
10.3.1 Wind Abrasion .................................. 265
10.3.2 Wind Deflation ................................. 268
10.3.3 Niveo-Eolian Sediments ......................... 268
10.3.4 Loess-Like Silt ................................ 269
10.3.5 Sand Dunes and Sand Sheets ..................... 270
10.4 Coastal Processes and Landforms ....................... 272
10.4.1 The Coastal-Sea-Ice Interface .................. 272
10.4.2 Sea Ice, Wave Generation, and Sediment
Transport ...................................... 273
10.4.3 Ice on the Beach ............................... 275
10.4.4 The Influence of Permafrost and Ground Ice ..... 276
10.4.5 Cold-Climate Deltas ............................ 277
Advanced Reading ........................................... 279
Discussion Topics .......................................... 279
Part III Quaternary and Late-Pleistocene Periglacial
Environments ............................................. 281
11 Quaternary Periglacial Conditions .......................... 283
11.1 Introduction .......................................... 283
11.2 The Time Scale and Climatic Fluctuations .............. 283
11.3 Global (Eustatic) Considerations ...................... 287
11.3.1 Sea-Level Changes .............................. 287
11.3.2 Uplift of Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau ....... 290
11.4 Pleistocene Periglacial Environments of High
Latitudes ............................................. 291
11.4.1 Extent of Past Glaciations ..................... 291
11.4.2 Relict Permafrost .............................. 293
11.4.3 Syngenetic Permafrost Growth ................... 294
11.4.4 Loess Deposition ............................... 295
11.4.5 Mass-Wasting and "Muck" Deposits ............... 296
11.5 Pleistocene Periglacial Environments of Mid-
Latitudes ............................................. 298
11.5.1 General Considerations ......................... 298
11.5.2 Mammals and Ecosystems ......................... 300
11.5.3 Perennial or Seasonal Frost? ................... 300
11.5.4 Problems of Paleo-Environmental
Reconstruction ................................. 302
11.5.5 Extent in the Northern Hemisphere .............. 302
11.5.6 Extent in the Southern Hemisphere .............. 306
11.6 Conclusions ........................................... 306
Advanced Reading ........................................... 307
Discussion Topics .......................................... 307
12 Evidence for Past Permafrost ............................... 308
12.1 Introduction .......................................... 308
12.2 Past Permafrost Aggradation ........................... 308
12.2.1 The Paleo-Permafrost Table ..................... 308
12.2.2 Frost-Fissure Pseudomorphs and Casts ........... 310
12.2.3 Frost-Mound Remnants ........................... 315
12.3 Past Permafrost Degradation ........................... 317
12.3.1 Thermokarst Depressions ........................ 317
12.3.2 Paleo-Thaw Layers .............................. 318
12.3.3 Thermokarst Involutions and Sediment-Filled
Pots ........................................... 318
12.3.4 Large-Scale Soft-Sediment Deformations ......... 320
12.3.5 Non-Diastrophic Structures in Bedrock .......... 322
12.3.6 Discussion 323
12.4 Summary ............................................... 323
Advanced Reading ........................................... 325
Discussion Topics .......................................... 325
13 Periglacial Landscape Modification ......................... 326
13.1 Introduction .......................................... 326
13.2 Intense Frost Action .................................. 327
13.2.1 Soil Wedges .................................... 327
13.2.2 Frost-Disturbed Bedrock ........................ 327
13.2.3 Stratified Slope Deposits ...................... 330
13.2.4 Head and Solifluction Deposits ................. 331
13.2.5 Frost-Disturbed Soils and Structures
(Involutions) .................................. 332
13.3 Intense Wind Action ................................... 334
13.3.1 Wind-Abraded Rocks ............................. 334
13.3.2 Eolian Silt (Loess) ............................ 335
13.3.3 Cold-Climate Eolian Sand ....................... 336
13.4 Fluvial Activity ...................................... 337
13.4.1 Major Rivers ................................... 339
13.4.2 Asymmetrical Valleys ........................... 340
13.4.3 Dells and Periglacial Valleys .................. 342
13.5 Slope Modification .................................... 343
13.5.1 Mass Wasting on Slopes ......................... 343
13.5.2 Valley-Bottom Aggradation ...................... 343
13.5.3 Smoothing of Slopes ............................ 346
Advanced Reading ........................................... 348
Discussion Topics .......................................... 348
Part IV Applied Periglacial Geomorphology ..................... 349
14 Geotechnical and Engineering Aspects ....................... 351
14.1 Introduction .......................................... 351
14.2 Cold-Regions Engineering .............................. 352
14.2.1 General Principles ............................. 352
14.2.2 General Solutions .............................. 353
14.3 Provision of Municipal Services and Urban
Infrastructure ........................................ 358
14.4 Construction of Buildings and Houses .................. 359
14.5 Water-Supply Problems ................................. 361
14.6 Roads, Bridges, Railways, and Airstrips ............... 364
14.7 Oil and Gas Development ............................... 367
14.7.1 Exploration Problems ........................... 367
14.7.2 Waste-Drilling-Fluid Disposal Problems ......... 368
14.7.3 Pipelines and Permafrost ....................... 369
14.8 Mining Activities ..................................... 371
Advanced Reading ........................................... 372
Discussion Topics .......................................... 372
15 Climate Change and Periglacial Environments ................ 373
15.1 Global Change and Cold Regions ........................ 373
15.2 Climate Change and Permafrost ......................... 375
15.2.1 Ground-Thermal Regimes ......................... 376
15.2.2 Thickness of the Active Layer .................. 376
15.2.3 Extent of Permafrost ........................... 377
15.2.4 Changes in Cryogenic Processes ................. 378
15.3 Other Responses ....................................... 381
15.3.1 Seasonal-Snow Cover ............................ 381
15.3.2 Sea Ice and Sea Level .......................... 382
15.3.3 Gas Hydrates and Methane ....................... 382
15.3.4 Seasonally-Frozen Ground ....................... 383
15.3.5 Boreal Forest, Tundra, and Polar Desert
Ecosystems ..................................... 383
15.4 The Urban Infrastructure .............................. 384
15.5 Conclusions ........................................... 386
Advanced Reading ........................................... 386
Discussion Topics .......................................... 387
References .................................................... 388
Index ......................................................... 449
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