 | Casazza J. Understanding electric power systems: an overview of the technology, the marketplace, and government regulation / J.Casazza, F.Delea. - 2nd ed. - Piscataway: IEEE Press; Hoboken: Wiley, 2010. - xix, 320 p.: ill., maps. - (IEEE Press understanding science & technology series). - Ind.: p.313-320. - ISBN 978-0-470-48418-0
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Preface to the Second Edition .................................. xv
Acknowledgments ............................................... xix
Chapter 1. Benefits of Electric Power and a History of
the Electric Power Industry .......................... 1
1.1 Societal Benefits of Electricity ........................... 1
1.2 Origin of the Industry ..................................... 2
1.3 The Development of the National Electric Power Grid ........ 5
1.4 "The Golden Age" ........................................... 8
Blackouts and the Reliability Crisis ....................... 9
The Environmental Crises—The Shift to Low-Sulfur Oil ...... 10
The Fuel Crisis—The Shift from Oil ........................ 10
The Financial Crisis ...................................... 11
The Legislative and Regulatory Crisis ..................... 12
1.5 Global Warming Crisis and Concerns about Carbon
Emissions ................................................. 13
1.6 Restructuring, Competition, and the Industry Ownership
Structure ................................................. 13
Chapter 2. The Electric Power System ........................... 15
2.1 The Customers ............................................. 16
2.2 Sources of the Electric Energy—Generation ................. 17
2.3 The Delivery System ....................................... 20
Interconnections .......................................... 24
The Grid .................................................. 24
Chapter 3. Basic Electric Power Concepts ....................... 27
3.1 Electric Energy ........................................... 28
3.2 Concepts Relating to the Flow of Electricity .............. 30
Direct Current (DC) ....................................... 31
Alternating Current (AC) .................................. 31
Three Phases .............................................. 33
Synchronism ............................................... 34
3.3 Characteristics of AC Systems ............................. 34
Resistance ................................................ 34
Induction and Inductive Reactance ......................... 35
Capacitance and Capacitive Reactance ...................... 36
Impedance ................................................. 38
3.4 Ohm's Law for Alternating Current ......................... 38
3.5 Power in Alternating Current Circuits ..................... 39
Real Power ................................................ 40
Reactive Power ............................................ 40
Transformers .............................................. 42
3.6 Power Flow ................................................ 43
Division of Power Flow .................................... 43
Voltage Drop and Reactive Power Flow ...................... 44
3.7 Stability ................................................. 44
Automatic Generation Controls (AGC) ............................ 46
Results of Instability ......................................... 47
Chapter 4. Electric Energy Consumption ......................... 49
4.1 End Uses for Electricity .................................. 49
4.2 Customer Classes .......................................... 50
4.3 Rate Classes .............................................. 51
4.4 Demand and Energy ......................................... 51
Energy 52. Effects of Load Diversity ........................... 53
4.5 System Load ............................................... 55
Load Management ........................................... 57
4.6 Reactive Load ............................................. 59
4.7 Losses and Unaccounted-For Energy in the Delivery
System .................................................... 59
4.8 Forecasts ................................................. 61
Chapter 5. Electric Power Generation and Concerns About
Greenhouse Gases .................................... 65
5.1 Generation's Role ......................................... 65
5.2 Types of Generation ....................................... 66
5.3 Thermal Conversion: Using Fuel as the Energy Resource ..... 69
Steam Cycle—Steam Turbines ................................ 69
Combustion (Gas) Turbines ................................. 70
Combined Cycle ............................................ 71
Nuclear ................................................... 72
Reciprocating Engines ..................................... 73
Microturbines ............................................. 74
Combined Heat and Power (CHP) or Cogeneration ............. 74
5.4 Thermal Conversion: Nonfuel Heat Sources .................. 74
Geothermal ................................................ 74
Solar Thermal Generation .................................. 75
5.5 Mechanical Energy Conversion .............................. 75
Hydroturbines and Hydropumped Storage ..................... 75
Wind Turbines ............................................. 77
Distributed Generation and Other Sources .................. 78
5.6 Renewable Technologies and Greenhouse Gas Emissions ....... 79
Supply-Side Options to Reduce Greenhouse .................. 79
Gas Emissions Financial Options to Reduce Carbon
Emissions ................................................. 83
5.7 Characteristics of Generating Plants ...................... 84
Size ...................................................... 85
Efficiency ................................................ 87
Availability .............................................. 88
Schedulable and Unschedulable Units ....................... 90
5.8 Capital Cost of Generation ................................ 90
5.9 Generator Life Extension .................................. 91
5.10 The Technology of Generation .............................. 91
Synchronous Generators .................................... 91
Variable Frequency and Direct Current Generation .......... 92
5.11 System Needs and Evaluation of Intermittent Resources ..... 93
chapter 6. The Technology of the Electric Transmission
System .............................................. 97
6.1 Components ................................................ 97
6.2 HVAC ...................................................... 98
Overhead Lines ............................................ 98
Overhead Line Capability—Ratings .......................... 99
Transmission Cable ....................................... 101
Cable Capacity ........................................... 101
Submarine Cables ......................................... 102
Superconducting Cables ................................... 102
6.3 Substations .............................................. 102
Substation Equipment ..................................... 103
Substation Circuit Breaker Arrangements .................. 108
Transmission System Aging ................................ 108
6.4 HVDC ..................................................... 108
6.5 Advantages of AC over DC Operation ....................... 110
Advantages of HVDC ....................................... 111
Disadvantages of HVDC .................................... 112
6.5 Knowledge Required of Transmission Systems ............... 113
Chapter 7. Distribution ....................................... 115
7.1 Function of Distribution ................................. 115
7.2 Primary Distribution Feeders ............................. 116
Radial Systems ........................................... 116
Loop Systems ............................................. 117
Primary Network Systems .................................. 117
Secondary Systems ........................................ 117
7.3 Distribution Capacity .................................... 118
7.4 Losses ................................................... 119
7.5 Distribution Facility Ratings ............................ 119
7.6 Metering ................................................. 120
7.7 Control of Distribution Voltages ......................... 120
Distribution Transformers ................................ 121
Voltage Regulators ....................................... 122
Capacitors ............................................... 123
7.8 Distribution System Reliability .......................... 123
7.10 Quality of Service ....................................... 124
7.11 Design of Distribution Systems ........................... 125
7.12 Distributed Generation ................................... 125
7.13 Operation of Distribution Systems ........................ 126
7.14 Smart Grids and Microgrids ............................... 127
Chapter 8. Energy Storage and Other New Technologies .......... 129
8.1 Energy Storage ........................................... 131
Benefits of Energy Storage to Generation ................. 131
Benefits of Energy Storage to Transmission and
Distribution ............................................. 132
8.2 Energy Storage Concepts and Technologies ................. 133
Mechanical Systems ....................................... 133
Thermal Energy Storage ................................... 136
Chemical Energy Storage .................................. 138
Batteries ................................................ 138
Hydrogen Energy Storage Systems .......................... 139
Electrical Storage ....................................... 140
Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage .................. 141
Power Conversion Equipment ............................... 141
The Future for Energy Storage ............................ 142
8.3 Smart Grid ............................................... 142
Microgrids ............................................... 146
8.4 New Nuclear Plant Designs ................................ 146
8.5 Carbon Sequestration and Clean Coal Technologies ......... 150
8.6 Superconductors .......................................... 153
Chapter 9. Reliability ........................................ 155
9.1 Causes of Outages ........................................ 155
9.2 Costs of Power Outages ................................... 157
9.3 Ways to Measure Reliability .............................. 158
9.4 Planning and Operating a Reliable and Adequate Power
System ................................................... 159
Generation ............................................... 164
Transmission ............................................. 165
Distribution ............................................. 166
9.5 Summary .................................................. 166
Chapter 10. The Physical Network: The North American
Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) and Its
Standards ......................................... 167
10.1 NERC as Electric Reliability Organization ............... 169
10.2 NERC Standards .......................................... 171
Functional Model ........................................ 171
10.3 Development of Standards ................................ 176
Reliability Principles .................................. 177
Market Interface Principles ............................. 177
Compliance with NERC Standards .......................... 179
Other NERC Responsibilities ............................. 179
The Future .............................................. 180
Chapter 11. The Physical Network: Operation of the Electric
Bulk Power ........................................ 181
11.1 Balancing Authorities ................................... 181
Area Control ............................................ 182
Operating Reserves ...................................... 184
11.2 Reliability Coordinators ................................ 184
11.3 Transmission Operators .................................. 186
Power Transfer Limits ................................... 186
Determination of Total Transfer Capability .............. 187
Parallel Path Flow and Loop Flow ........................ 188
Reduction of Power Transfers—Congestion Management ...... 189
Ancillary Services ...................................... 189
11.4 Voltage and Reactive Control ............................ 191
11.5 Emergencies ............................................. 192
Operating Emergencies ................................... 193
11.6 Information Exchange .................................... 194
Chapter 12 The Physical Network: Planning of the Electric
Bulk Power System .................................. 197
12.1 Planning Standards ...................................... 198
12.2 Generation Planning ..................................... 198
12.3 Transmission Planning ................................... 200
Transmission System Planning Studies .................... 203
12.4 Least Cost Planning ..................................... 205
12.5 The New Planning Environment ............................ 205
Recent Transmission Projects ............................ 211
Chapter 13. The Regulatory Network: Legislation ............... 213
13.1 Pricing and Regulation .................................. 213
13.2 Federal Legislation ..................................... 214
13.3 Federal Utility Holding Company Act (PUHCA) ............. 214
13.4 Federal Power Act ....................................... 216
13.5 Other 1930 Federal Laws ................................. 219
13.6 Department of Energy Organization Act ................... 219
13.7 Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) .......... 220
13.8 Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPAct02) ..................... 222
13.9 The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct05) ................. 224
13.10 The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 ........ 227
13.11 Environmental Laws ...................................... 227
13.12 2009 American Recovery and Reinvestment Act ............. 230
Chapter 14. The Regulatory Network: The Regulators ............ 231
14.1 The Regulators ........................................... 231
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) .............. 231
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) .................... 233
Department of Energy (DOE) ............................... 234
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) ...................... 236
Recent Federal Regulations ............................... 237
FERC Actions after EPAct92................................ 237
FERC Actions Implementing EPAct05 ........................ 242
Market Manipulation ...................................... 242
Electricity Reliability and Infrastructure ............... 242
Expansion and Modernization of the Nation's
Electricity Grid ......................................... 245
Siting Major New Transmission Facilities ................. 245
PURPA Reforms ............................................ 246
Repeal of PUHCA—Mergers and Acquisitions ................. 246
Market-Based Rates ....................................... 247
Recent EPA Actions ....................................... 248
State Regulatory Authority ............................... 249
State Utility Restructuring .............................. 250
Overall Regulatory Problems .............................. 251
Chapter 15. The Information, Communication, and Control
Network and Security .............................. 253
15.1 Smart Grid ............................................... 253
15.2 Financial and Business Operations ........................ 254
15.3 System Operations ........................................ 255
15.4 Distribution Operations .................................. 255
15.5 Cyber Security ........................................... 256
15.6 Nuclear Plant Security ................................... 259
Chapter 16. The Fuel and Energy Network ....................... 261
16.1 Resource Procurement ..................................... 264
Fuel Measurements ........................................ 265
16.2 Fuel Transportation ...................................... 265
16.3 Fuel Diversity ........................................... 266
16.4 Fossil Fuels Used ........................................ 267
16.5 Renewable Energy ......................................... 269
16.6 Fuel Purchasing .......................................... 271
16.7 Emission Rights .......................................... 271
Chapter 17. The Business Network: Market Participants ......... 273
17.1 Investment and Cost Recovery ............................. 273
17.2 The Changing Industry Structure .......................... 274
Functional Unbundling .................................... 274
Additional Utility Responses ............................. 275
ISO/RTO Formation ........................................ 275
Holding Company Formation ................................ 275
Power Plant Divestitures ................................. 277
17.3 New Structures ........................................... 279
Power Producers .......................................... 279
Independent Transmission Companies and Operators ......... 279
Impact of Restructuring on the Transmission System ....... 280
Distributors ............................................. 280
Power Marketers .......................................... 281
17.4 New Corporate Ownership .................................. 281
Utility Mergers and Acquisitions ......................... 282
Acquisitions by Foreign Companies ........................ 282
Financial Institutions ................................... 283
Chapter 18. The Money Network: Wholesale Markets .............. 285
18.1 The Energy Markets ....................................... 286
Standard Market Design (SMD) ............................. 288
Locational Marginal Pricing (LMP) ........................ 289
18.2 Transmission ............................................. 291
Transmission Rights ...................................... 291
Physical Transmission Rights (PTRs) ...................... 292
Financial Transmission Rights (FTRs) ..................... 293
Wheeling and Customer Choice ............................. 294
Contracts and Agreements ................................. 294
Average System versus Incremental Costs .................. 295
18.3 Customer Late Issues ..................................... 294
Construction Work in Progress (CWIP) ..................... 295
Setting of Rates ......................................... 296
Rate Freezes ............................................. 296
Allocation of Costs and Economic Benefits ................ 296
Average Costs versus Incremental Costs ................... 297
18.4 Market versus Operational Control ........................ 298
18.5 Market Power Issues ...................................... 298
Price Caps ............................................... 299
18.6 The Future ............................................... 299
Chapter 19. The Professional and Industry Organizations ....... 301
19.1 The Professional Organizations ........................... 301
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) ................................................... 301
The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) ........... 303
American Society of Mechanical Engineers ................. 304
(ASME) and the American Institute of Chemical
Engineers (AIChE) CIGRE .................................. 304
19.2 Industry Associations .................................... 304
NEMA ..................................................... 304
The Association of Edison Illuminating Companies
(AEIC) ................................................... 305
The American Public Power Association (APPA) ............. 305
The Edison Electric Institute (EEI) ...................... 306
The Electricity Consumer Resource Council (ELCON) ........ 306
The National Rural Electric Cooperative Association
(NRECA) .................................................. 307
Electric Power Supply Association (EPSA) ................. 307
The Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI) ....................... 308
19.3 Public Interest Groups ................................... 308
The National Association of Regulatory Utility
Commissioners (NARUC) .................................... 308
Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) ......................... 308
Public Citizen ........................................... 309
Public Interest Law Project .............................. 309
19.4 Research Organizations ................................... 309
The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) ............. 310
Other Research ........................................... 310
The National Regulatory Research Institute (NRRI) ........ 311
The Power Systems Engineering Research Center (PSERC) .... 311
Index ......................................................... 313
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