List of contributors ........................................... ix
List of abbreviations, constants and nomenclature ............... x
Preface ...................................................... xiii
1. The climate of the Earth .................................... 1
John Lockwood
1.1. Basic climatology ..................................... 1
1.2. General atmospheric circulation ....................... 3
1.3. Palaeoclimates ........................................ 5
1.4. Polar climates ....................................... 10
1.5. Temperate latitude climates .......................... 14
1.6. Tropical climates .................................... 17
References ................................................. 24
Further reading ............................................ 25
Questions .................................................. 25
2. Chemical evolution of the atmosphere ....................... 26
Richard Wayne
2.1. Creation of the planets and their earliest
atmospheres .......................................... 27
2.2. Earth's atmosphere before life began ................. 30
2.3. Comparison of Venus, Earth and Mars .................. 31
2.4. Life and Earth's atmosphere .......................... 34
2.5. Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere ................. 38
2.6. The rise of oxygen concentrations .................... 40
2.7. Protection of life from ultraviolet radiation ........ 48
2.8. Summary .............................................. 51
References ................................................. 52
Further reading ............................................ 53
Questions .................................................. 53
3. Atmospheric energy and the structure of the atmosphere ..... 54
Hugh Coe
3.1. The vertical structure of Earth's atmosphere ......... 54
3.2. Solar and terrestrial radiation ...................... 56
3.3. Solar radiation, ozone and the stratospheric
temperature profile .................................. 59
3.4. Trapping of longwave radiation ....................... 61
3.5. A simple model of radiation transfer ................. 61
3.6. Light scattering ..................................... 64
3.7. Conduction, convection and sensible and
latent heat .......................................... 69
3.8. The energy budget for the Earth's atmosphere ......... 74
3.9. Changes in climate and the concept of radiative
forcing .............................................. 76
3.10. Solar radiation and the biosphere .................... 79
3.11. Summary .............................................. 80
References ................................................. 81
Further reading ............................................ 82
Questions .................................................. 82
4. Biogeochemical cycles ...................................... 83
Dudley Shallcross
4.1. Sources .............................................. 86
4.2. Sinks ................................................ 86
4.3. Carbon ............................................... 89
4.4. Nitrogen ............................................. 95
4.5. Sulphur .............................................. 97
4.6. Halogens ............................................ 102
4.7. Hydrogen ............................................ 107
4.8. Summary ............................................. 108
References ................................................ 108
Further reading ........................................... 110
Questions ................................................. 110
Answers ................................................... 112
5. Tropospheric chemistry and air pollution .................. 114
Paul Monks and Roland Leigh
5.1. Sources of trace gases in the atmosphere ............ 114
5.2. Key processes in tropospheric chemistry ............. 117
5.3. Initiation of photochemistry by light ............... 119
5.4. Tropospheric oxidation chemistry .................... 120
5.5. Night-time oxidation chemistry ...................... 128
5.6. Halogen chemistry ................................... 130
5.7. Air pollution and urban chemistry ................... 134
5.8. Summary ............................................. 140
References ................................................ 142
Further reading ........................................... 143
Questions ................................................. 144
6. Cloud formation and chemistry ............................. 146
Peter Brimblecombe
6.1. Clouds .............................................. 146
6.2. Cloud formation ..................................... 147
6.3. Particle size and water content ..................... 149
6.4. Dissolved solids in cloud water and rainfall ........ 151
6.5. Dissolution of gases ................................ 152
6.6. Reactions and photochemistry ........................ 158
6.7. Radical and photochemical reactions ................. 162
6.8. Summary ............................................. 164
References ................................................ 165
Further reading ........................................... 167
Questions ................................................. 167
7. Particulate matter in the atmosphere ...................... 168
Paul I. Williams and Urs Baltensperger
7.1. Aerosol properties .................................. 170
7.2. Aerosol sources ..................................... 178
7.3. The role of atmospheric particles .................... 185
7.4. Aerosol measurements ................................ 192
7.5. Summary ............................................. 195
References ................................................ 195
Questions ................................................. 197
8. Stratospheric chemistry and ozone depletion ............... 198
Rob MacKenzie
8.1. Ozone column amounts ................................ 198
8.2. The physical structure of the stratosphere .......... 201
8.3. Gas-phase chemistry of the stratosphere ............. 206
8.4. Aerosols and clouds in the stratosphere ............. 210
8.5. Heterogeneous chemistry of the stratosphere ......... 212
8.6. Future perturbations to the stratosphere ............ 214
8.7. Summary ............................................. 216
References ................................................ 216
Questions ................................................. 217
9. Boundary layer meteorology and atmospheric
dispersion ................................................ 218
Janet Barlow
9.1. The atmospheric boundary layer ...................... 218
9.2. Flow over vegetation ................................ 224
9.3. Urban boundary layers ............................... 229
9.4. Dispersion of pollutants ............................ 233
9.5. Summary ............................................. 240
References ................................................ 241
Further reading ........................................... 242
Questions ................................................. 242
Hints and answers ......................................... 242
10. Urban air pollution ....................................... 243
Jes Fenger
10.1. Air pollution through the ages ...................... 243
10.2. Pollutants and sources .............................. 245
10.3. From emission intensity to pollution levels ......... 249
10.4. Urban-scale impacts ................................. 252
10.5. Means of mitigation ................................. 256
10.6. Case studies ........................................ 259
10.7. Summary ............................................. 265
References ................................................ 266
Further reading ........................................... 267
Questions ................................................. 267
11. Global warming and climate change science ................. 268
Atul Jain
11.1. Historical evidence of the impact of human
activities on climate ............................... 269
11.2. Future outlook of climate change .................... 278
11.3. Potential impacts of climate change ................. 285
11.4. Pathways to policy considerations .................. 287
11.5. Summary ............................................ 289
References ................................................ 290
Questions ................................................. 292
Appendix: List of websites .................................... 293
Index ......................................................... 295 |
