Applied scanning probe methods X: biomimetics and industrial applications / ed. by Bhushan B., Fuchs H., Tomitori M. - Berlin; Heidelberg: Springer, 2008. - lix, 427 p.: ill. (some col.). - (Nanoscience and technology). - Incl. bibl. ref. - Sub. ind.: p.413-427. - ISBN 3-540-74084-1; ISSN 1434-4904  Место хранения:   084 | Конструкторско-технологический институт научного приборостроения CO РАН | Новосибирск

Оглавление / Contents

27. Gecko Feet: Natural Attachment Systems for Smart Adhesion-Mechanism, Modeling, and Development of Bio-Inspired Materials Bharat Bhushan, Robert A. Sayer .......................... 1 27.1. Introduction .......................................... 1 27.2. Tokay Gecko ........................................... 2 27.2.1. Construction of Tokay Gecko ................... 2 27.2.2. Other Attachment Systems ...................... 5 27.2.3. Adaptation to Surface Roughness ............... 7 27.2.4. Peeling ....................................... 8 27.2.5. Self-Cleaning ................................ 10 27.3. Attachment Mechanisms ................................ 12 27.3.1. Van der Waals Forces ......................... 12 27.3.2. Capillary Forces ............................. 13 27.4. Experimental Adhesion Test Techniques and Data ....... 14 27.4.1. Adhesion Under Ambient Conditions ............ 15 27.4.2. Effects of Temperature ....................... 17 27.4.3. Effects of Humidity .......................... 18 27.4.4. Effects of Hydrophobicity .................... 18 27.5. Adhesion Modeling .................................... 19 27.5.1. Spring Model ................................. 21 27.5.2. Single Spring Contact Analysis ............... 21 27.5.3. The Multilevel Hierarchical Spring Analysis ..................................... 23 27.5.4. Adhesion Results for the Gecko Attachment System Contacting a Rough Surface ............ 26 27.5.5. Capillarity Effects .......................... 30 27.5.6. Adhesion Results that Account for Capillarity Effects .......................... 31 27.6. Modeling of Biomimetic Fibrillar Structures .......... 34 27.6.1. Fiber Model .................................. 34 27.6.2. Single Fiber Contact Analysis ................ 34 27.6.3. Constraints .................................. 35 27.6.4. Numerical Simulation ......................... 39 27.6.5. Results and Discussion ....................... 41 27.7. Fabrication of Biomimetric Gecko Skin ................ 48 27.7.1. Single-Level Hierarchical Structures ......... 49 27.7.2. Multilevel Hierarchical Structures ........... 53 27.8. Closure .............................................. 55 Appendix ................................................... 56 References ................................................. 59 28. Carrier Transport in Advanced Semiconductor Materials Filippo Giannazzo, Patrick Fiorenza, Vito Raineri ....... 63 28.1. Majority Carrier Distribution in Semiconductors: Imaging and Quantification ........................... 64 28.1.1. Basic Principles of SCM ...................... 64 28.1.2. Carrier Imaging Capability by SCM ............ 67 28.1.3. Quantification of SCM Raw Data ............... 70 28.1.4. Basic Principles of SSRM ..................... 78 28.1.5. Carrier Imaging Capability by SSRM ........... 81 28.1.6. Quantification of SSRM Raw Data .............. 81 28.1.7. Drift Mobility by SCM and SSRM ............... 85 28.2. Carrier Transport Through Metal-Semiconductor Barriers by C-AFM .................................... 88 28.3. Charge Transport in Dielectrics by C-AFM ............. 93 28.3.1. Direct Determination of Breakdown ............ 97 28.3.2. Weibull Statistics by C-AFM .................. 99 28.4. Conclusion .......................................... 101 References ................................................ 101 29. Visualization of Fixed Charges Stored in Condensed Matter and Its Application to Memory Technology Yasuo Cho .............................................. 105 29.1. Introduction ........................................ 105 29.2. Principle and Theory for SNDM ....................... 106 29.3. Microscopic Observation of Area Distribution of the Ferroelectric Domain Using SNDM ................. 107 29.4. Visualization of Stored Charge in Semiconductor Flash Memories Using SNDM ........................... 109 29.5. Higher-Order SNDM ................................... 110 29.6. Noncontact SNDM ..................................... 111 29.7. SNDM for 3D Observation of Nanoscale Ferroelectric Domains ............................................. 112 29.8. Next-Generation Ultra-High-Density Ferroelectric Data Storage Based on SNDM .......................... 114 29.8.1. Overview of Ferroelectric Data Storage ...... 114 29.8.2. SNDM Nanodomain Engineering System and Ferroelectric Recording Medium .............. 116 29.8.3. Nanodomain Formation in а LiTaO3 Single Crystal .............................. 117 29.8.4. High-Speed Switching of Nanoscale Ferroelectric Domains in Congruent Single-Crystal LiTa03 ....................... 120 29.8.5. Prototype of a High-Density Ferroelectric Data Storage System ......................... 122 29.8.6. Realization of 10 Tbit/in.2 Memory Density ..................................... 126 29.9. Outlook ............................................. 128 References ................................................ 129 30. Applications of Scanning Probe Methods in Chemical Mechanical Planarization Toshi Kasai, Bharat Bhushan ............................ 131 30.1. Overview of CMP Technology and the Need for SPM ..... 131 30.1.1. CMP Technology and Its Key Elements ......... 131 30.1.2. Various CMP Processes and the Need for SPM ..................................... 134 30.2. AFP for the Evaluation of Dishing and Erosion ....... 137 30.3. Surface Planarization and Roughness Characterization in CMP Using AFM ................... 141 30.4. Use of Modified Atomic Force Microscope Tips for Fundamental Studies of CMP Mechanisms ........... 144 30.5. Conclusions ......................................... 149 References ................................................ 149 31. Scanning Probe Microscope Application for Single Molecules in а π-Conjugated Polymer Toward Molecular Devices Based on Polymer Chemistry Ken-ichi Shinohara ..................................... 153 31.1. Introduction ........................................ 153 31.2. Chiral Helical π-Conjugated Polymer ................. 154 31.2.1. Helical Chirality of а π-Conjugated Main Chain Induced by Polymerization of Phenylacetylene with Chiral Bulky Groups .... 156 31.2.2. Direct Measurement of the Chiral Quaternary Structure in a π-Conjugated Polymer ..................................... 158 31.2.3. Direct Measurement of Structural Diversity in Single Molecules of a Chiral Helical π-Conjugated Polymer ........................ 163 31.2.4. Dynamic Structure of Single Molecules in a Chiral Helical π-Conjugated Polymer by a High-Speed AFM ......................... 166 31.3. Supramolecular Chiral π-Conjugated Polymer .......... 169 31.3.1. Simultaneous Imaging of Structure and Fluorescence of a Supramolecular Chiral π-Conjugated Polymer ........................ 169 31.3.2. Dynamic Structure of a Supramolecular Chiral π-Conjugated Polymer by a High- Speed AFM ................................... 177 References ................................................ 181 32. Scanning Probe Microscopy on Polymer Solar Cells Joachim Loos, Alexander Alexeev ........................ 183 32.1. Brief Introduction to Polymer Solar Cells ........... 184 32.2. Sample Preparation and Characterization Techniques .......................................... 188 32.3. Morphology Features of the Photoactive Layer ........ 190 32.3.1. Influence of Composition and Solvents on the Morphology of the Active Layer .......... 190 32.3.2. Influence of Annealing ...................... 193 32.3.3. All-Polymer Solar Cells ..................... 199 32.4. Nanoscale Characterization of Properties of the Active Layer ........................................ 201 32.4.1. Local Optical Properties As Measured by Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy ...... 201 32.4.2. Characterization of Nanoscale Electrical Properties .................................. 203 32.5. Summary and Outlook ................................. 212 References ................................................ 213 33. Scanning Probe Anodization for Nanopatterning Hiroyuki Sugimura ...................................... 217 33.1. Introduction ........................................ 217 33.2. Electrochemical Origin of SPM-Based Local Oxidation ........................................... 218 33.3. Variation in Scanning Probe Anodization ............. 223 33.3.1. Patternable Materials in Scanning Probe Anodization ................................. 223 33.3.2. Environment Control in Scanning Probe Anodization ................................. 226 33.3.3. Electrochemical Scanning Surface Modification Using Cathodic Reactions ....... 229 33.4. Progress in Scanning Probe Anodization .............. 232 33.4.1. From STM-Based Anodization to AFM-Based Anodization ................................. 232 33.4.2. Versatility of AFM-Based Scanning Probe Anodization ................................. 233 33.4.3. In Situ Characterization of Anodized Structures by AFM-Based Methods ............. 233 33.4.4. Technical Development of Scanning Probe Anodization ................................. 237 33.5. Lithographie Applications of Scanning Probe Anodization ......................................... 239 33.5.1. Device Prototyping .......................... 239 33.5.2. Pattern Transfer from Anodic Oxide to Other Materials ............................. 240 33.5.3. Integration of Scanning Probe Lithography with Other High-Throughput Lithographies .... 247 33.5.4. Chemical Manipulation of Nano-objects by the Use of a Nanotemplate Prepared by Scanning Probe Anodization ............... 248 33.6. Conclusion .......................................... 251 References ................................................ 251 34. Tissue Engineering: Nanoscale Contacts in Cell Adhesion to Substrates Mario D'Acunto, Paolo Giusti, Franco Maria Montevecchi, Gianluca Ciardelli ........................ 257 34.1. Tissue Engineering: A Brief Introduction ............ 257 34.2. Fundamental Features of Cell Motility and Cell-Substrates Adhesion ........................ 261 34.2.1. Biomimetic Scaffolds, Roughness, and Contact Guidance for Cell Adhesion and Motility ................................ 268 34.3. Experimental Strategies for Cell-ECM Adhesion Force Measurements .................................. 271 34.4. Conclusions ......................................... 279 34.5. Glossary ............................................ 279 References ................................................ 280 35. Scanning Probe Microscopy in Biological Research Tatsuo Ushiki, Kazushige Kawabata ...................... 285 35.1. Introduction ........................................ 285 35.2. SPM for Visualization of the Surface of Biomaterials ........................................ 286 35.2.1. Advantages of AFM in Biological Studies ..... 286 35.2.2. AFMofBiomolecules ........................... 287 35.2.3. AFM of Isolated Intracellular and Extracellular Structures .................... 289 35.2.4. AFM of Tissue Sections ...................... 292 35.2.5. AFM of Living Cells and Their Movement ...... 292 35.2.6. Combination of AFM with Scanning Near- Field Optical Microscopy for Imaging Biomaterials ................................ 294 35.3. SPM for Measuring Physical Properties of Biomaterials ........................................ 296 35.3.1. Evaluation Methods of Viscoelasticity ....... 296 35.3.2. Examples for Viscoelasticity Mapping Measurements ................................ 299 35.3.3. Combination of Viscoelasticity Measurement with Other Techniques ....................... 302 35.4. SPM as a Manipulation Tool in Biology ............... 304 35.5. Conclusion .......................................... 306 References ................................................ 306 36. Novel Nanoindentation Techniques and Their Applications Jiping Ye .............................................. 309 36.1. Introduction ........................................ 309 36.2. Basic Principles of Contact ......................... 311 36.2.1. Meyer's Law ................................. 311 36.2.2. Elastic Contact Solution .................... 312 36.3. Tip Rigidity and Geometry ........................... 313 36.4. Hardness and Modulus Measurements ................... 314 36.4.1. Analysis Method ............................. 314 36.4.2. Practical Application Aspects ............... 316 36.4.3. Recent Applications ......................... 320 36.5. Yield Stress and Modulus Measurements ............... 324 36.5.1. Analysis Method ............................. 324 36.5.2. Recent Applications ......................... 326 36.6. Work-Hardening Rate and Exponent Measurements ....... 329 36.6.1. Analysis Method ............................. 329 36.6.2. Practical Application Aspects ............... 333 36.6.3. Recent Applications ......................... 335 36.7. Viscoelastic Compliance and Modulus ................. 336 36.7.1. Analysis Method ............................. 336 36.7.2. Practical Application Aspects ............... 339 36.8. Other Mechanical Characteristics .................... 342 36.9. Outlook ............................................. 343 References ................................................ 343 37. Applications to Nano-Dispersion Macromolecule Material Evaluation in an Electrophotographic Printer Yasushi Kadota ......................................... 347 37.1. Introduction ........................................ 347 37.2. Electrophotographic Processes ....................... 348 37.2.1. Principle and Characteristics of an Electrophotographic System .................. 348 37.2.2. Microcharacteristic and Analysis Technology for Functional Components ........ 349 37.3. SPM Applications to Electrophotographic Systems ..... 352 37.3.1. Measurement of Electrostatic Charge of Toner .................................... 352 37.3.2. Measurement of the Adhesive Force Between a Particle and a Substrate .................. 353 37.3.3. Observation of a Nanodispersion Macromolecule Interface—Toner Adhesion to a Fusing Roller ............................. 355 37.4. Current Technology Subjects ......................... 357 References ................................................ 357 38. Automated AFM as an Industrial Process Metrology Tool for Nanoelectronic Manufacturing Tianming Bao, David Fong, Sean Hand .................... 359 38.1. Introduction ........................................ 359 38.2. Dimensional Metrology with AFM ...................... 361 38.2.1. Dimensional Metrology ....................... 361 38.2.2. AFM Scanning Technology ..................... 362 38.2.3. AFM Probe Technology ........................ 367 38.2.4. AFM Metrology Capability .................... 367 38.3. Applications in Semiconductors — Logic and Memory Integrated Circuits .......................... 370 38.3.1. Shallow Trench Isolation Resist Pattern ..... 370 38.3.2. STI Etch .................................... 372 38.3.3. STI CMP ..................................... 375 38.3.4. Gate Resist Pattern ......................... 378 38.3.5. Gate Etch ................................... 379 38.3.6. FinFET Gate Formation ....................... 383 38.3.7. Gate Sidewall Spacer ........................ 385 38.3.8. Strained SiGe Source/Drain Recess ........... 385 38.3.9. Pre-metal Dielectric CMP .................... 386 38.3.10.Contact and Via Photo Pattern ............... 387 38.3.11.Contact Etch ................................ 387 38.3.12.Contact CMP ................................. 389 38.3.13.Metal Trench Photo Pattern .................. 390 38.3.14.Metal Trench Etch ........................... 390 38.3.15.Via Etch .................................... 392 38.3.16.Via Etch .................................... 394 38.3.17.Roughness ................................... 396 38.3.18.LWR, LER, and SWR ........................... 397 38.3.19.DRAM DT Capacitor ........................... 397 38.3.20 Ferroelectric RAM Capacitor ................. 398 38.3.21.Optical Proximity Correction ................ 398 38.4. Applications in Photomask ........................... 399 38.4.1. Photomask Pattern and Etch .................. 399 38.4.2. Photomask Defect Review and Repair .......... 400 38.5. Applications in Hard Disk Manufacturing ............. 401 38.5.1. Magnetic Thin-Film Recording Head ........... 401 38.5.2. Slider for Hard Drive ....................... 405 38.6. Applications in Microelectromechanical System Devices ...................................... 406 38.6.1. Contact Image Sensor ........................ 406 38.6.2. Digital Light Processor Mirror Device ....... 408 38.7. Challenge and Potential Improvement ................. 408 38.8. Conclusion .......................................... 409 References ................................................ 411 Subject Index ................................................. 413