1. Fundamentals of Optical Telescopes .......................... 1
1.1. A Brief History of Optical Telescopes ................. 1
1.2. General Astronomical Requirements ..................... 6
1.2.1. Angular Resolution ............................ 6
1.2.2. Light Collecting Power and Limiting Star
Magnitude .................................... 14
1.2.3. Field of View and Combined Efficiency ........ 25
1.2.4. Atmospheric Windows and Site Selection ....... 28
1.3. Fundamentals of Astronomical Optics .................. 32
1.3.1. Optical Systems for Astronomical
Telescopes ................................... 32
1.3.2. Aberrations and Their Calculations ........... 40
1.3.3. Formulas of Telescope Aberrations ............ 46
1.3.4. Field Corrector Design ....................... 51
1.3.5. Ray Tracing, Spot Diagram, and Merit
Function ..................................... 57
1.4. Modern Optical Theory ................................ 62
1.4.1. Optical Transfer Function .................... 62
1.4.2. Wave Aberrations and Modulation Transfer
Function ..................................... 68
1.4.3. Wavefront Error and the Strehl Ratio ......... 73
1.4.4. Image Spatial Frequency ...................... 74
1.4.5. Image Property of a Segmented Mirror
System ....................................... 81
References ................................................. 84
2. Mirror Design For Optical Telescopes ....................... 87
2.1. Specifications for Optical Mirror Design ............. 87
2.1.1. Fundamental Requirements for Optical
Mirrors ...................................... 87
2.1.2. Mirror Surface Error and Mirror Support
Systems ...................................... 90
2.1.3. Surface Error Fitting and Slope Error
Expression .................................. 100
2.2. Lightweight Primary Mirror Design ................... 101
2.2.1. Significance of Lightweight Mirrors for
Telescopes .................................. 101
2.2.2. Thin Mirror Design .......................... 102
2.2.3. Honeycomb Mirror Design ..................... 106
2.2.4. Multi-Mirror Telescopes ..................... 109
2.2.5. Segmented Mirror Telescopes ................. 111
2.2.6. Metal and Lightweight Mirrors ............... 115
2.3. Mirror Polishing and Mirror Supporting .............. 119
2.3.1. Material Properties of Optical Mirrors ...... 119
2.3.2. Optical Mirror Polishing .................... 122
2.3.3. Vacuum Coating .............................. 125
2.3.4. Mirror Supporting Mechanisms ................ 126
2.4. Mirror Seeing and Stray Light Control ............... 131
2.4.1. Mirror Seeing Effect ........................ 131
2.4.2. Stray Light Control ......................... 135
References ................................................ 139
3. Telescope Structures and Control System ................... 141
3.1. Telescope Mounting .................................. 141
3.1.1. Equatorial Mounting ......................... 141
3.1.2. Altitude-Azimuth Mounting ................... 143
3.1.3. Stewart Platform Mounting ................... 151
3.1.4. Fixed Mirror or Fixed Altitude Mountings .... 158
3.2. Telescope Tube and Other Structure Design .... 159
3.2.1. Specifications for Telescope Tube Design .... 159
3.2.2. Telescope Tube Design ....................... 160
3.2.3. Support Vane Design for Secondary Mirror .... 164
3.2.4. Telescope Bearing Design .................... 165
3.2.5. Structural Static Analysis .................. 170
3.3. Telescope Drive and Control ......................... 174
3.3.1. Specifications of a Telescope Drive
System ...................................... 174
3.3.2. Trends in Drive System Design ............... 170
3.3.3. Encoder Systems for Telescopes .............. 177
3.3.4. Pointing Error Corrections .................. 187
3.3.5. Servo Control and Distributed
Intelligence ................................ 189
3.3.6. Star Guiding ................................ 194
3.4. Structural Dynamic Analysis ......................... 198
3.4.1. Wind and Earthquake Spectrums ............... 198
3.4.2. Dynamic Simulation of Telescope
Structures .................................. 205
3.4.3. Combined Structural and Control
Simulation .................................. 211
3.4.4. Structure Vibration Control ................. 212
3.4.5. Telescope Foundation Design ................. 218
References ................................................ 220
4. Advanced Techniques for Optical Telescopes ................ 223
4.1. Active and Adaptive Optics .......................... 223
4.1.1. Basic Principles of Active and Adaptive
Optics ...................................... 223
4.1.2. Wavefront Sensors ........................... 226
4.1.3. Actuators, Deformable Mirrors, Phase
Correctors, and Metrology Systems ........... 236
4.1.4. Active Optics System and Phasing Sensors .... 244
4.1.5. Curvature Sensors and Tip-Tilt Devices ...... 258
4.1.6. Atmospheric Disturbance and Adaptive Optics
Compensation ................................ 264
4.1.7. Artificial Laser Guide Star and Adaptive
Optics ...................................... 270
4.1.8. Atmosphere Tomography and Multi-Conjugate
Adaptive Optics ............................. 275
4.1.9. Adaptive Secondary Mirror Design ............ 280
4.2. Optical Interferometers ............................. 282
4.2.1. Speckle Interferometer Technique ............ 282
4.2.2. Michelson Interferometer .................... 286
4.2.3. Fizeau Interferometry ....................... 292
4.2.4. Intensity Interferometer .................... 293
4.2.5. Amplitude Interferometer .................... 300
References ................................................ 305
5. Space Telescope Projects and their Development ............ 309
5.1. Orbit Environmental Conditions ...................... 309
5.1.1. Orbit Definition ............................ 310
5.1.2. Orbit Thermal Conditions .................... 312
5.1.3. Other Orbit Conditions ...................... 316
5.2. Attitude Control of Space Telescopes ................ 321
5.2.1. Attitude Sensors ............................ 321
5.2.2. Attitude Actuators .......................... 323
5.3. Space Telescope Projects ............................ 323
5.3.1. Hubble Space Telescope ...................... 323
5.3.2. James Webb Space Telescope .................. 326
5.3.3. The Space Interferometry Mission and Other
Space Programs .............................. 331
References ................................................ 336
6. Fundamentals of Radio Telescopes .......................... 339
6.1. Brief History of Radio Telescopes ................... 339
6.2. Scientific Requirements for Radio Telescopes ........ 341
6.3. Atmospheric Radio Windows and Site Selection ........ 345
6.4. Parameters of Radio Antennas ........................ 351
6.4.1. Radiation Pattern ........................... 351
6.4.2. Antenna Gain ................................ 352
6.4.3. Antenna Temperature and Noise Temperature ... 353
6.4.4. Antenna Efficiency .......................... 355
6.4.5. Polarization Properties ..................... 357
6.4.6. Optical Arrangement of Radio Antennas ....... 359
6.4.7. Characteristics of Offset Antennas .......... 368
6.5. Radio Telescope Receivers ........................... 374
References ................................................ 375
7. Radio Telescope Design .................................... 377
7.1. Antenna Tolerance and Homologous Design ............. 377
7.1.1. Transmission Loss of Electromagnetic
Waves ....................................... 377
7.1.2. Antenna Tolerance Theory .................... 379
7.1.3. Antenna Homology ............................ 384
7.1.4. Antenna Surface Best Fitting ................ 387
7.1.5. Positional Tolerances of Antenna Reflector
and Feed .................................... 390
7.1.6. Aperture Blockage and Ground Radiation
Pickup ...................................... 396
7.1.7. Antenna Surface Fitting Through Ray
Tracing ..................................... 401
7.2. Radio Telescope Structure Design .................... 404
7.2.1. General Types of Radio Antennas ............. 404
7.2.2. Steerable Parabolic Antenna Design .......... 412
7.2.3. Wind Effect on Antenna Structures ........... 418
7.2.4. Active Control of Radio Telescopes .......... 420
7.3. Radio Interferometers ............................... 428
7.3.1. Fundamentals of Radio Interferometers ....... 428
7.3.2. Aperture Synthesis Telescopes ............... 430
7.3.3. Weiner-Khinchin and Van Cittert-Zernike
Theorems .................................... 433
7.3.4. Calibration: Active Optics After
Observation ................................. 434
7.3.5. Very Large Array, Expanded Very Large
Array, and Square Kilometer Array ........... 437
7.3.6. Very Long Baseline Interferometer ........... 438
7.3.7. Space Radio Interferometers ................. 439
References ................................................ 440
8. Millimeter and Submillimeter Wavelength Telescopes ........ 443
8.1. Thermal Effects on Millimeter Wavelength
Telescopes .......................................... 443
8.1.1. Characteristics of Millimeter Wavelength
Telescopes .................................. 444
8.1.2. Thermal Conditions of Open Air Antennas ..... 446
8.1.3. Heat Transfer Formulae ...................... 447
8.1.4. Panel Thermal Design ........................ 452
8.1.5. Backup Structure Thermal Design ............. 455
8.2. Structural Design of Millimeter Wavelength
Antennas ............................................ 459
8.2.1. Panel Requirements and Manufacture .......... 459
8.2.2. Backup Structure Design ..................... 463
8.2.3. Design of Chopping Secondary Mirror ......... 465
8.2.4. Sensors, Metrology, and Optical Pointing
Telescopes .................................. 468
8.2.5. Active Optics Used in Millimeter Antennas ... 471
8.2.6. Antenna Lightning Protection ................ 472
8.3. Carbon Fiber Composite Materials .................... 474
8.3.1. Properties of Carbon Fiber Composites ....... 474
8.3.2. Thermal Deformation of Shaped Sandwiched
Structures .................................. 477
8.3.3. CFRP-Metal Joint Design ..................... 482
8.4. Holographic Measurements and Quasi-Optics ........... 487
8.4.1. Holographic Measurements of Antenna
Surfaces .................................... 487
8.4.2. Surface Panel Adjusting ..................... 493
8.4.3. Quasi-Optics ................................ 494
8.4.4. Broadband Planar Antennas ................... 496
References ................................................ 498
9. Infrared, Ultraviolet, X-Ray, and Gamma Ray Telescopes .... 501
9.1. Infrared Telescopes ................................. 501
9.1.1. Requirements of Infrared Telescopes ......... 501
9.1.2. Structural Properties of Infrared
Telescopes .................................. 505
9.1.3. Balloon-Borne and Space-Based Infrared
Telescopes .................................. 509
9.2. X-Ray and Ultraviolet Telescopes .................... 513
9.2.1. Properties of X-Ray Radiation ............... 513
9.2.2. X-Ray Imaging Telescopes .................... 519
9.2.3. Space X-ray Telescopes ...................... 524
9.2.4. Microarcsecond X-ray Image Mission .......... 526
9.2.5. Space Ultraviolet Telescopes ................ 529
9.3. Gamma Ray Telescopes ................................ 531
9.3.1. Gamma Ray Fundamentals ...................... 531
9.3.2. Gamma Ray Coded Mask Telescopes ............. 532
9.3.3. Compton Scattering and Pair Telescopes ...... 535
9.3.4. Space Gamma Ray Telescopes .................. 538
9.3.5. Air Cherenkov Telescopes .................... 539
9.3.6. Extensive Air Shower Array .................. 545
9.3.7. Major Ground-Based Gamma Ray Projects ....... 546
References ................................................ 547
10. Gravitational Wave, Cosmic Ray and Dark Matter
Telescopes ................................................ 549
10.1. Gravitational Wave Telescopes ....................... 549
10.1.1. Gravitational Wave Fundamentals ............. 549
10.1.2. Resonant Gravitational Wave Telescopes ...... 552
10.1.3. Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave
Detectors ................................... 555
10.1.4. Important Gravitational Wave Telescope
Projects .................................... 562
10.1.5. Other Gravitational Wave and Gravity
Telescopes .................................. 564
10.2. Cosmic Ray Telescopes ............................... 566
10.2.1. Cosmic Ray Spectrum ......................... 566
10.2.2. Cosmic Ray EAS Array Telescopes ............. 569
10.2.3. Cosmic Ray Fluorescence Detectors ........... 570
10.2.4. Magnetic Spectrometer Detectors ............. 573
10.3. Dark Matter Detectors ............................... 574
10.3.1. Cold and Hot Dark Matter .................... 574
10.3.2. Detection of Neutrinos ...................... 576
10.3.3. Status of Neutrino Telescopes ............... 579
10.3.4. Detection of Cold Dark Matter ............... 581
References ................................................ 585
11. Review of Astronomical Telescopes ......................... 587
11.1. Introduction ........................................ 587
11.2. Electromagnetic Wave and Atmosphere Transmission .... 588
11.3. Nonelectromagnetic Telescopes ....................... 592
11.4. Ground Astronomical Telescopes ...................... 593
11.5. Space Astronomical Telescopes ....................... 597
11.6. Man's Space Missions ................................ 598
11.6.1. Moon Missions ............................... 599
11.6.2. Mercury Missions ............................ 601
11.6.3. Venus Missions .............................. 601
11.6.4. Mars Missions ............................... 602
11.6.5. Jupiter Missions ............................ 602
11.6.6. Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto
Missions .................................... 603
11.6.7. Asteroids and Comet Missions ................ 603
11.7. Reconnaissance Telescopes ........................... 604
References ................................................ 606
Appendix A .................................................... 607
Appendix B .................................................... 613
Index ......................................................... 615
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