Preface ........................................................ xv
List of Principal Symbols .................................... xvii
Contributors .................................................. xxi
I. PRINCIPLES ................................................. 1
1. Historical Aspects of Aerosol Measurements ................. 3
Kvetoslav R. Spurny
Introduction ............................................... 3
The Early Days ............................................. 3
Preclassical Period of Aerosol Measurement ................. 3
Classical Period of Aerosol Measurement .................... 7
Measurement of Fibrous Aerosols ........................... 22
Concluding Remarks ........................................ 24
2. Bridging Science and Application in Aerosol
Measurement: Accessing Available Tools .................... 31
Paul A. Baron and Klaus Willeke
Introduction .............................................. 31
Associated Fields ......................................... 32
Computer Technology ....................................... 32
Languages ................................................. 33
Aerosol Calculator ........................................ 34
3. Aerosol Fundamentals ...................................... 45
Paul A. Baron and Klaus Willeke
Introduction .............................................. 45
Desirable versus Undesirable Aerosols ..................... 46
Units and Use of Equations ................................ 46
Common Technical and Descriptive Terms .................... 48
Particle Size and Shape ................................... 49
Particle Suspensions ...................................... 53
Instrument Considerations ................................. 54
Particle Shape Measurement ................................ 55
Particle Forces ........................................... 57
4. Gas and Particle Motion ................................... 61
Paul A. Baron and Klaus Willeke
Introduction .............................................. 61
Bulk Gas Motion ........................................... 61
Transition and Gas Molecular Row .......................... 64
Gas and Particle Diffusion ................................ 67
Aerodynamic Drag on Particles ............................. 69
Particle Motion Due to Gravity ............................ 71
Particle Parameters ....................................... 74
Particle Motion in an Electric Field ...................... 77
Particle Motion in Other Force Fields ..................... 79
5. Physical and Chemical Changes in the Particulate Phase .... 83
William C. Hinds
Introduction .............................................. 83
Condensation .............................................. 86
Nucleation ................................................ 88
Evaporation ............................................... 89
Coagulation ............................................... 91
Reactions ................................................. 96
6. Size Distribution Characteristics of Aerosols ............. 99
Walter John
Basic Concepts of Particle Size and Size Distributions .... 99
Ambient Aerosols ......................................... 102
Indoor Aerosols .......................................... 112
Industrial Aerosols ...................................... 113
7. An Approach to Performing Aerosol Measurements ........... 117
Paul A. Baron and William A. Heitbrink
Introduction ............................................. 117
Quality Assurance: Planning a Measurement ................ 117
Measurement Accuracy ..................................... 118
Size Range ............................................... 119
Collection and Analysis Measurements ..................... 120
Direct-Reading Measurement of Aerosols ................... 122
Aerosol Measurement Errors ............................... 124
II. TECHNIQUES ............................................... 141
8. Sampling and Transport of Aerosols ....................... 143
John E. Brockmann
Introduction ............................................. 143
Sample Extraction ........................................ 148
Sample Transport ......................................... 170
Other Sampling Issues .................................... 188
Summary and Conclusions .................................. 190
9. Filter Collection ........................................ 197
K.W. Lee and R. Mukund
Introduction ............................................. 197
General Principles of Filter Sampling .................... 198
Aerosol Measurement Filters .............................. 201
Filtration Theory ........................................ 205
Filter Selection ......................................... 220
10. Inertial, Gravitational, Centrifugal, and Thennal
Collection Techniques .................................... 229
Virgil A. Marple, Bernard A. Olson, and Kenneth
L. Rubow
Introduction ............................................. 229
Inertial Classifiers ..................................... 230
Settling Devices and Centrifuges ......................... 254
Thermal Precipitators .................................... 256
11. Chemical Analysis Methods for Atmospheric Aerosol
Components ............................................... 261
Paul A. Solomon, Gary Norris, Matthew Landis,
and Michael Tolocka
Introduction ............................................. 261
Scope and Objectives ..................................... 263
Mass Measurements ........................................ 266
Water-Extractable Anion and Cation Analysis Methods ...... 268
Particulate Carbon ....................................... 272
Elemental Analysis by Nondestructive Techniques .......... 276
Elemental Analysis by Destructive Techniques ............. 279
Continuous Methods ....................................... 281
Summary .................................................. 284
12. Analysis of Individual Collected Particles ............... 295
R.A. Fletcher, J.A. Small, and J.H.J. Scott
Introduction ............................................. 295
Light Microscopy ......................................... 298
Electron Beam Analysis of Particles ...................... 303
Laser Microprobe Mass Spectrometry ....................... 334
Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry .......................... 340
Raman Microprobe ......................................... 345
Infrared Microscopy ...................................... 348
Scanning Probe Microscopy ................................ 349
Complementary Capabilities of Microanalytical
Instrumentation .......................................... 353
13. Real-Time Single-Particle Analysis ....................... 365
Anthony S. Wexler and Murray V. Johnston
Introduction ............................................. 365
Particle Detection ....................................... 371
Particle Sizing .......................................... 372
Particle Vaporization and Ionization ..................... 373
Mass Analysis ............................................ 377
Data Handling and Interpretation ......................... 379
Putting It All Together—Selected Instruments ............. 380
14. Dynamic Mass and Surface Area Measurements ............... 387
Urs Baltensperger, Ernest Weingartner, Heinz
Burtscher, and Jorma Keskinen
Introduction ............................................. 387
Mass Measurement ......................................... 387
Piezoelectric Crystal Measurement Method ................. 387
Beta Gauge Method ........................................ 389
Tapered-Element Oscillating Microbalance Method .......... 395
Electrical Low-Pressure Impactor ......................... 399
Surface Area Measurement ................................. 404
Epiphaniometer ........................................... 406
Diffusion Charger ........................................ 408
Photoelectric Aerosol Sensor ............................. 412
15. Optical Direct-Reading Techniques: Light Intensity
Systems .................................................. 419
Josef Gebhart
Introduction ............................................. 419
Light Scattering and Extinction by a Single Sphere ....... 420
Light Scattering and Extinction by an Assembly
of Particles ............................................. 427
Single-Particle Optical Counters ......................... 433
Multiple-Particle Optical Techniques ..................... 446
Light Scattering by Irregular Particles .................. 449
16. Optical Direct-Reading Techniques: In Situ Sensing ....... 455
Daniel J. Rader and Timothy J. O'Hern
Introduction ............................................. 455
Overview ................................................. 456
Light Scattering ......................................... 461
Single-Particle Counters: Intensity Based ................ 465
Single-Particle Counters: LDV Visibility Based ........... 469
Single-Particle Counters: Phase Based .................... 470
Single-Particle Counters: Imaging ........................ 473
Ensemble Techniques: Particle Field Imaging .............. 475
Ensemble Techniques: Fraunhofer Diffraction .............. 477
Ensemble Techniques: Dynamic Light Scattering ............ 481
Performance Verification ................................. 482
Conclusions .............................................. 487
17. Direct-Reading Techniques Using Particle Motion and
Optical Detection ........................................ 495
Paul A. Baron, Malay K. Mazumder, and Yung-Sung
Cheng
Introduction ............................................. 495
Electric-Single Particle Aerodynamic Relaxation Time
Analyzer ................................................. 496
Aerodynamic Particle Sizer ............................... 508
Aerosizer ................................................ 520
Fibrous Aerosol Monitor .................................. 527
18. Electrical Techniques .................................... 537
Richard C. Flagan
Introduction ............................................. 537
Behavior of Charged Particles ............................ 538
Relationship Between Migration and Diffusion ............. 540
Aerosol Charge Conditioning .............................. 540
Particle Sampling ........................................ 551
Particle Size Distribution Measurement ................... 551
19. Condensation Detection and Diffusion Size Separation
Techniques ............................................... 569
Yung-Sung Cheng
Introduction ............................................. 569
Condensation Theory ...................................... 570
Condensation Nuclei Counters ............................. 573
Theories of the Diffusion Measurement Technique .......... 579
Diffusion Denuders ....................................... 582
Diffusion Batteries ...................................... 587
Conclusions .............................................. 596
20. Electrodynamic Levitation of Particles ................... 603
E. James Davis
Introduction ............................................. 603
Levitation Principles .................................... 605
Particle Sizing .......................................... 608
Force Measurement ........................................ 613
Mass and Charge Measurement .............................. 615
Evaporation/Condensation ................................. 618
Chemical Reactions ....................................... 620
Concluding Remarks ....................................... 622
21. Instrument Calibration ................................... 627
Bean T. Chen and Walter John
Introduction ............................................. 627
Measurement Methods and Calibration Standards ............ 628
General Considerations ................................... 629
Calibration Apparatus and Procedures ..................... 632
Test Aerosol Generation .................................. 635
Calibration of Flow, Pressure, and Velocity .............. 650
Instrument Calibration ................................... 656
Summary of Calibration Procedures ........................ 660
22. Methods of Size Distribution Data Analysis and
Presentation ............................................. 667
Douglas W. Cooper
Introduction ............................................. 667
Particle Size Distributions .............................. 668
Concentration Distributions .............................. 673
Summarizing Data with a Few Parameters ................... 675
Confidence Intervals and Error Analysis .................. 682
Testing Hypotheses with Size Distribution Data ........... 684
Coincidence Errors ....................................... 689
Choosing Size Interval Demarcations ...................... 690
Data Inversion ........................................... 690
III. APPLICATIONS ............................................. 703
23. Nonspherical Particle Measurements: Shape Factors,
Fractals, and Fibers ..................................... 705
Paul A. Baron, Christopher M. Sorensen, and
John E. Brockmann
Introduction ............................................. 705
Shape Factor ............................................. 705
Fractal Particles ........................................ 707
Fibers ................................................... 725
24. Biological Particle Sampling ............................. 751
Tiina Reponen, Klaus Willeke, Sergey Grinshpun,
and Aino Nevalainen
Introduction ............................................. 751
Bioaerosol Types ......................................... 752
Sources of Bioaerosols ................................... 756
General Sampling Considerations .......................... 757
Principles of Bioaerosol Collection ...................... 760
Collection Time .......................................... 764
Selection of Sampler ..................................... 769
Calibration .............................................. 771
Contamination ............................................ 771
Sample Analysis .......................................... 772
25. Aerosol Measurement in the Workplace ..................... 779
Andrew D. Maynard and Paul A. Jensen
Introduction ............................................. 779
Aerosol Exposure Measurement in the Workplace ............ 780
Sampling Against Exposure Conventions .................... 784
Measurement of Size Distribution ......................... 791
Use of Direct-Reading Instruments ........................ 792
Future Trends ............................................ 794
26. Mine Aerosol Measurement ................................. 801
Bruce K. Cantrell and Jon C. Volkwein
Introduction ............................................. 801
Mine Aerosol Sources ..................................... 802
Physical Characteristics of Mine Aerosol ................. 803
Measurement Technology ................................... 806
27. Ambient Air Sampling ..................................... 821
John G. Watson and Judith C. Chow
Introduction ............................................. 821
Sampling System Components ............................... 822
Sampling Systems ......................................... 833
Selecting a Sampling System .............................. 838
Conclusions .............................................. 839
28. Fugitive Dust Emissions .................................. 845
Chatten Cowherd, Jr.
Introduction ............................................. 845
Factors Affecting Dust Emissions ......................... 845
Emission Calculation Procedure ........................... 848
Emission Quantification Techniques ....................... 850
Emission Models .......................................... 854
Emission Control Options ................................. 855
29. Indoor Aerosols and Exposure Assessment .................. 859
Charles E. Rodes and Russell W. Wiener
Introduction ............................................. 859
Concentrations Versus Exposures .......................... 860
Measurement Strategies ................................... 862
Sampling and Analysis Methods ............................ 866
Indoor Air Assessments ................................... 872
Exposure Studies ......................................... 876
Modeling ................................................. 879
30. Measurement of Aerosol from Aircraft ..................... 887
James Charles Wilson and W. Russell Seebaugh
Introduction ............................................. 887
Research Utilizing Aerosol Measurement from Aircraft ..... 887
Objectives to be Achieved in Airborne Aerosol Sampling
and Measurement .......................................... 888
Airborne Aerosol Measurement Techniques .................. 889
Effects Complicating Aerosol Sampling from Aircraft ...... 891
Review of Inlets ......................................... 894
Conclusions .............................................. 898
31. Measurement of High-Concentration and High-Temperature
Aerosols ................................................. 903
Pratim Biswas
Introduction ............................................. 903
Dilution Systems ......................................... 904
EPA Stack Sampling Methods ............................... 911
High-Temperature Impactors ............................... 912
In Situ Measurements ..................................... 913
Characterization of Combustion Aerosols .................. 923
32. Manufacturing of Materials by Aerosol Processes .......... 929
Sotiris E. Pratsinis, Georgios Skillas, and
Toivo T. Kodas
Materials ................................................ 929
Aerosol Processes ........................................ 931
Measurement Techniques ................................... 939
33. Aerosol Measurements in Cleanrooms ....................... 959
Robert P. Donovan
Introduction ............................................. 959
International Standards for Classifying, Verifying, and
Monitoring Cleanrooms: ISO 14644-1 and -2 ................ 962
Commercially Available Aerosol Particle Counters for
Cleanroom Classification and Monitoring .................. 971
Measuring Particulate Emissions from Cleanroom
Equipment ................................................ 974
Conclusions .............................................. 977
34. Radioactive Aerosols ..................................... 979
Mark D. Hoover and George J. Newton
Introduction ............................................. 979
Radiation and Radioactive Decay .......................... 980
Radiation Detection ...................................... 983
Safe Handling of Radioactive Aerosols .................... 985
Objectives for Measuring Radioactive Aerosols ............ 988
Application of Standard Measuring Techniques ............. 991
Special Techniques for Radioactive Aerosols .............. 996
Practical Options for Data Transmission and
Networking .............................................. 1003
Adequacy of the Existing Aerosol Science Data Base ...... 1003
Conclusions ............................................. 1004
35. Radon and Its Short-Lived Decay Product Aerosols ........ 1011
Beverly S. Cohen
Introduction ............................................ 1011
Radon in the Environment ................................ 1011
Radiometric Properties of Radon and Daughters ........... 1014
Aerosol Properties of Radon and Daughters ............... 1016
Human Exposure Parameters ............................... 1017
Air Sampling for Radon and Its Short-Lived Decay
Products ................................................ 1019
Calibration ............................................. 1026
Protocols for Indoor Measurement ........................ 1027
Conclusions ............................................. 1027
36. Measurement of Pharmaceutical and Diagnostic Aerosols ... 1031
Anthony J. Hickey and David Swift
Introduction ............................................ 1031
Pharmaceutical Aerosols by Route of Administration ...... 1033
Diagnostic Aerosols ..................................... 1039
Characterization of Pharmaceutical and Diagnostic
Aerosols ................................................ 1041
Current Issues in Pharmaceutical and Diagnostic
Aerosol Measurement ..................................... 1050
Conclusions ............................................. 1050
37. Inhalation Toxicology: Sampling Strategies Related
to Control of Exposure Atmospheres ...................... 1053
Owen R. Moss
Introduction ............................................ 1053
Basic Atmosphere Generation and Control Systems ......... 1054
Properties of Exposure Systems .......................... 1056
Basic Sampling Techniques and Strategies ................ 1057
Conclusions ............................................. 1061
Appendix A Glossary of Terms ............................... 1065
Appendix B Conversion Factors .............................. 1079
Appendix C Commonly Used Constants ......................... 1081
Appendix D Some Properties of Air and Water ................ 1083
Appendix E Major Dimensionless Numbers ..................... 1085
Appendix F Properties of Particles ......................... 1087
Appendix G Geometric Formulas .............................. 1089
Appendix H Bulk Densities of Some Common Aerosol
Materials ....................................... 1091
Appendix I Manufacturers and Suppliers ..................... 1093
INDEX ........................................................ 1111
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