List of figures ................................................ ix
Preface and acknowledgments .................................... xi
Conventions .................................................. xiii
List of abbreviations ........................................ xvii
1. The framework ................................................ 1
1.1. AIMS OF THIS BOOK .......................................... 1
1.2. THE THEORY Ob GRAMMAR AND Ob LANGUAGE USE .................. 6
1.2.1. Meaning and grammar ................................. 7
1.2.2. Polysemy, homonymy, monosemy ....................... 11
1.2.3. Meaning and use .................................... 16
1.2.4. Subjectivity, intersubjectivity, objectivity ....... 19
1.3. SEMANTIC CHANGE ........................................... 24
1.3.1. Mechanisms of semantic change: metaphorization,
metonymization ..................................... 27
1.3.2. The Invited Inferencing Theory of Semantic
Change model of semantic change .................... 34
1.4. CHILD VS. ADULT ACQUISITION IN SEMANTIC CHANGE ............ 41
1.5. THE HYPOTHESIS THAT ONTOGENY RECAPITULATES
PHYLOGENY ................................................. 42
1.6. THE NATURE OF EVIDENCE FOR SEMANTIC CHANGE ................ 44
1.6.1. The validity of written data ....................... 45
1.6.2. The language and data sources for this book ........ 48
1.7. SUMMARY AND OUTLINE OF LATER CHAPTERS ..................... 49
2. Prior and current work on semantic change ................... 51
2.1. INTRODUCTION .............................................. 51
2.2. BACKGROUNDS TO CONTEMPORARY WORK .......................... 51
2.2.1. Breal .............................................. 52
2.2.2. The early twentieth century ........................ 60
2.2.Ъ Semantic fields ..................................... 65
2.3. MAJOR CONTEMPORARY ISSUES ................................. 75
2.3.1. Metaphor ........................................... 75
2.3.2. Metonymy and invited inference ..................... 78
2.3.3. Grammaticalization and unidirectionality ........... 81
2.3.4. Subjectification and intersubjectification ......... 89
2.3.5. Historical pragmatics .............................. 99
2.4. CONCLUSION ............................................... 104
3. The development of modal verbs ............................. 105
3.1. INTRODUCTION ............................................. 105
3.2. SOME MORE DETAILED DISTINCTIONS RELEVANT TO DEONTIC
AND EPISTEMIC MODALITY ................................... 108
3.2.1. Subjects of modals ................................ 108
3.2.2. Conceptual sources ................................ 109
3.2.3. Generalized deontic and epistemic necessity
and possibility ................................... 111
3.2.4. Scope ............................................. 112
3.2.5. (Inter)subjectivity ............................... 113
3.2.6. Temporality ....................................... 116
3.2.7. Scales of modal strength .......................... 117
3.3. SEMANTIC SOURCES OF DEONTIC AND EPISTEMIC MODALS ......... 118
3.4. THE DEVELOPMENT OF EPISTEMIC MEANING ..................... 120
3.4.1. English must ...................................... 120
3.4.2. English ought to .................................. 137
3.4.3. Chinese de ........................................ 144
3.5. Conclusion ............................................... 147
4. The development of adverbials with discourse. marker
function ................................................... 152
4.1. INTRODUCTION ............................................. 152
4.2. DISCOURSE MARKERS ........................................ 154
4.3. THE DEVELOPMENT OF DISCOURSE MARKERS SIGNALING LOCAL
CONNECTIVITY ............................................. 157
4.3.1. English indeed .................................... 159
4.3.2. English in fact ................................... 165
4.3.3. English actually .................................. 169
4.3.4. Comparison of the three adverbials ................ 170
4.4. SUBJECTIFICATION AND INTERSUBJECTIFICATION ............... 174
4.4.1. English well ...................................... 175
4.4.2. English let's ..................................... 176
4.5. THF DEVELOPMENT OF A DISCOURSE MARKER SIGNALING
GLOBAL CONNECTIVITY: JAPANESE SATE ....................... 178
4.6. CONCLUSION ............................................... 187
5. The development of performative verbs and constructions .... 190
5.1. SPEECH ACT AND PERFORMATIVE VKRBS ........................ 190
5.2. SOME ISSUES FOR STUDIES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF
PERFORMATIVE VKRHS ....................................... 195
5.3. PRECURSORS OF PERFORMATIVE VERBS ......................... 201
5.4. THE DEVELOPMENT OF PERFORMATIVE FUNCTION ................. 204
5.4.1. Some directives: PROMISE in English ............... 204
5.4.2. A declarative: Chinese bao ........................ 214
5.4.3. Another declarative: Japanese aisatu .............. 215
5.5. ON THE RECRUITMENT OF MODAI.S FOR PERFORMATIVE USES ...... 219
5.6. CONCLUSION ............................................... 224
6. The development of social deictics ......................... 226
6.1. INTRODUCTION ............................................. 226
6.2. SOME MORE DETAILED DISTINCTIONS RELEVANT TO
HONORIFICS .......................................... 227
6.2.1. Referent and addressee honorifics ................. 227
6.2.2. Politeness and honorific social deictics .......... 228
6.2.3. A model of deixis ................................. 231
6.3. CLASSES OF HONORIFICS AND PATTERNS OF SEMANTIC CHANGE
IN JAPANESE .............................................. 235
6.4. THE DEVELOPMENT OF REFERENT SOCIAL DEICTIC FUNCTION ...... 242
6.4.1. Japanese kudasaru "RESP:give to SP/W (group)" ..... 245
6.4.2. English pray (ADV) ................................ 252
6.4.3. English please (ADV) .............................. 255
6.5. THE DEVELOPMENT OF PREDICATE ADDRESSEE HONORIFICS IN
JAPANESE ................................................. 258
6.5.1 Japanese saburahu "HUMIL:be" > "be:POL" ............ 263
6.6. CONCLUSION ............................................... 276
7. Conclusion ................................................. 279
7.1. INTRODUCTION ............................................. 279
7.2. SUMMARY OF MAJOR FINDINGS ................................ 279
7.3. DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK ............................... 283
Primary references ............................................ 286
Secondary references .......................................... 295
Index of languages ............................................ 328
Index of names ................................................ 330
General index ................................................. 335
FIGURES
1.1. Correlations between degree of subjectivity and
heuristics ................................................ 24
1.2. Shift in demonstratives from Classical to Vulgar Latin .... 30
1.3. Model of the Invited Inferencing Theory of Semantic
Change .................................................... 38
1.4. Correlated paths of directionality in semantic change ..... 40
2.1. German terms of intellect ................................. 66
2.2. The proposed cross-linguistic development of color
terms ..................................................... 69
2.3. Extension of verbs of perception across modalities ........ 71
2.4. Synaesthetic adjectives ................................... 72
2.5. Direction of polysemy extensions in the field of
eye/face and seed/fruit ................................... 73
2.6. Proposed universal structure for the semantics of the
diminutive ................................................ 89
2.7. The logical square of quantifiers ........................ 102
2.8. The logical square of must of obligation ................. 103
3.1. Relative modal strengths of must, have (got) to,
ought to ................................................. 117
3.2. Some possible sources of modals of obligation ............ 118
3.3. Some possible sources of modals of ability, root
possibility, and permission .............................. 119
3.4. Schema for the development of modal polysemies ........... 121
3.5. Schema for the development of must, to mustj ............. 131
3.6. Time-line for the development of must .................... 132
3.7. Schema for the development of Chinese de ................. 147
3.8. Correlated paths of directionality in the development
of epistemic modals ...................................... 148
4.1. Time-line for the development of indeed .................. 165
4.2. Approximate dates of development of indeed, actually,
in fact .................................................. 171
4.3. Time-line for the development of Jp. sate ................ 186
4.4. Correlated paths of directionality in the development
of DMs ................................................... 187
4.5. Number of English initial sentence adverbials by class
over time. 188 5.1 The development of promise ............ 210
5.2. Correlated paths in the development of performative
uses of nonperformative verbs ............................ 225
6.1. Schematic model of the meaning-in-use of PDE here ........ 232
6.2. Schematic model of the "second person singular
pronoun" meaning of Fr. vous ............................. 234
6.3. Schematic for the CDE > CSE development of Japanese
predicate honorifics ..................................... 235
6.4. Respectful and humiliative referent honorific
M-structures in Modern Japanese .......................... 238
6.5. Deictic donatory verbs in MdJ ............................ 246
6.6. Time-line for the development of the Jp. RESP referent
honorific kudasaru ....................................... 252
6.7. Japanese predicate items that developed addressee
honorific meaning ........................................ 259
6.8. Time-line for the development of Jp. saburahu ............ 275
6.9. Correlated paths in the development of Japanese
honorifics ............................................... 276
7.1. Summary of the cross-linguistic regularities in
semantic change discussed in this book ................... 281
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