 | Nondestructive materials characterization: with applications to aerospace materials / Meyendorf M.G.N., Nagy P.B., Rokhlin S.I. - Berlin; London: Springer, 2004. - xvii, 416 p. - (Springer series in materials science; 67). - ISBN 3-540-40517-8; ISSN 0933-033X
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1. Degradation of Aircraft Structures ........................... 1
1.1. Introduction ............................................... 1
1.2. NDE Methods at a Glance .................................... 2
1.3. Degradation of Aircraft Materials and NDE .................. 5
1.3.1. Corrosion Protective Coatings ....................... 5
1.3.2. Corrosion ........................................... 9
1.3.3. Fatigue ............................................ 15
1.3.4. Fretting and Fretting Fatigue ...................... 21
1.4. Introduction to the Next Chapters ......................... 23
References ..................................................... 24
2. Optical Detection of Surface Damage ......................... 26
2.1. Introduction .............................................. 26
2.2. Background ................................................ 27
2.3. Instrumentation and Method ................................ 28
2.4. Applications .............................................. 29
2.4.1. Optical Quantification of Fretting Fatigue
Damage ............................................. 30
2.4.2. Characterization of Localized Corrosion Damage
and Its Role for Fatigue Crack Initiation .......... 37
2.4.3. Characterization of Crack Damage States
in Titanium Alloys through Examination
of the Surface Deformation Preceding the
Crack Front ........................................ 47
2.5. Conclusions ............................................... 55
References ..................................................... 56
3. Microradiographic and Foil Penetration Methods
for Quantification of Localized Corrosion ................... 58
3.1. Introduction .............................................. 58
3.2. Background ................................................ 59
3.3. Microradiographic System .................................. 61
3.4. Microradiographic Methods ................................. 63
3.4.1. Microradiographic Methods Evaluation ............... 63
3.4.2. Microradiography of Corrosion Samples .............. 74
3.4.3. Microradiographic Methods for Pit Depth
Measurement ........................................ 76
3.4.4. Validation of Microradiographic Pit Depth
Measurement ........................................ 79
3.4.5. Microradiographic Characterization of Fatigue
Cracks Initiated by Corrosion Pits ................. 91
3.4.6. Phase-Contrast Image Enhancement with
Microradiography ................................... 95
3.5. Foil Penetration Method ................................... 99
3.6. Application of Microradiography for Studying
Localized Corrosion ...................................... 101
3.6.1. Microradiographic Analysis of Corroded Foil
Penetration Samples ............................... 101
3.6.2. In Situ Microradiography of Localized
Corrosion Growth .................................. 105
3.7. Summary and Conclusions .................................. 110
References .................................................... 112
4. Interferometric and Holographic Imaging of Surface
Wave Patterns for Characterization of Material
Degradation ................................................ 113
4.1. Introduction ............................................. 113
4.2. Background ............................................... 114
4.2.1. Ultrasonic Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) ........ 114
4.2.2. Surface Acoustic Waves (SAW) ...................... 116
4.2.3. Ultrasonic Reflection and Scattering from
Microcracks ....................................... 119
4.2.4. Local Ultrasonic Scattering from
Surface-Breaking Cracks ........................... 122
4.2.5. Optical Interferometry and Holography ............. 125
4.3. Instrumentation and Methods .............................. 127
4.3.1. Near-Field Scanning Interferometry (NFSI)
System ............................................ 127
4.3.2. Frequency Translated Holography (FTH) System ...... 128
4.4. Applications ............................................. 128
4.4.1. Interferometric and Holographic Imaging of
Surface Waves ..................................... 130
4.4.2. Local Ultrasonic Scattering from
Surface-Breaking Cracks ........................... 131
4.4.3. Crack-Depth Determination ......................... 133
4.4.4. In Situ Stress-Corrosion Crack (SCC) Growth
Measurements ...................................... 136
4.5. Future Trends ............................................ 139
References ............................................... 140
5. Surface Acoustic Wave Characterization
of Pitting Corrosion Damage with Fatigue Crack ............. 142
5.1. Introduction ............................................. 142
5.2. Background ............................................... 144
5.3. Instrumentation and Methods .............................. 145
5.3.1. Experiments ....................................... 145
5.3.2. Fatigue Crack Growth Analysis ..................... 147
5.3.3. Analysis of Surface Wave Scattering for Crack
Sizing ............................................ 152
5.4. Applications ............................................. 157
5.4.1. Pit Size Measurements ............................. 157
5.4.2. Ultrasonic Sizing of Crack Initiated
from a Pit ........................................ 160
5.4.3. Fatigue Life Prediction ........................... 172
5.5. Future Trends ............................................ 176
References .................................................... 177
6. Ultrasonic Fatigue Crack Detection in Aluminum
and Titanium Alloys ........................................ 180
6.1. Introduction ............................................. 180
6.2. Background (Crack-Closure) ............................... 182
6.3. Instrumentation and Methods .............................. 185
6.3.1. Thermo-Optical Modulation ......................... 185
6.3.2. The Role of Thermal Diffusivity ................... 187
6.4. Applications ............................................. 193
6.4.1. Dynamic Thermo-Optical Modulation in Al-2024 ...... 193
6.4.2. Quasi-static Thermo-Optical Modulation in
Ti6A1-4V .......................................... 198
6.5. Conclusions .............................................. 204
References .................................................... 205
7. Early Detection of Fatigue Damage in Ti-6A1-4V
with Nonlinear Acoustics ................................... 206
7.1. Introduction ............................................. 206
7.2. Background ............................................... 207
7.2.1. Linear Acoustic Measurements and Fatigue .......... 207
7.2.2. Nonlinear Acoustics in Fatigue Damage
Measurement ....................................... 207
7.3. Methods .................................................. 209
7.3.1. General Description ............................... 209
7.3.2. Capacitive Detector Method ........................ 210
7.3.3. Piezoelectric Method .............................. 213
7.3.4. In Situ Measurement ............................... 214
7.4. Applications ............................................. 216
7.4.1. Material and Sample Description ................... 216
7.4.2. Interrupted Fatigue Measurements
(Low Cycle Fatigue) ............................... 217
7.4.3. In Situ Measurements .............................. 220
7.4.4. Discussion of Interrupted and Continuous
Measurement Results ............................... 223
7.4.5. Local Damage Measurements ......................... 224
7.4.6. Summary and Conclusions ........................... 230
References .................................................... 232
8. Ultrasonic Absorption Measurements ......................... 234
8.1. Introduction ............................................. 234
8.2. Background ............................................... 234
8.3. Method ................................................... 237
8.3.1. Laser Ultrasound .................................. 237
8.3.2. Contact Ultrasound ................................ 237
8.4. Applications ............................................. 238
8.5. Future Trends ............................................ 242
References ............................................... 244
9. Thermographic Materials Characterization ................... 246
9.1. Introduction ............................................. 246
9.2. Background ............................................... 246
9.2.1. Thermal Wave and Thermal Diffusion Techniques ..... 246
9.2.2. Mechanically Induced Heat ......................... 249
9.3. Infrared Cameras for NDE ................................. 251
9.4. Methods .................................................. 253
9.5. Applications ............................................. 254
9.5.1. Passive Infrared Imaging of Defects through
Organic Coating ................................... 254
9.5.2. Pulsed Thermography for Detection of
Subsurface Defects ................................ 256
9.5.3. Fan Thermography for Imaging of Corrosion
under Coatings .................................... 257
9.5.4. Mechanically Induced Dissipated Heat Analysis
(MIDA) - High Stress Excitation ................... 261
9.5.5. Fatigue Characterization by Mechanically
Induced Dissipated Heat Analysis (MIDA) -
Ultrasonic Excitation ............................. 272
9.5.6. Thermographic NDE Based on Heat Dissipation -
Summary and Conclusion ............................ 276
References .................................................... 283
10.Scanning Vibrating Electrode Technique as a Benchmark
for NDE of Corrosion ....................................... 286
10.1.Introduction ............................................. 286
10.2.Background ............................................... 287
10.3.Instrumentation .......................................... 288
10.4.Applications ............................................. 290
References .................................................... 292
11.Acoustic Imaging Techniques for Characterization of
Corrosion, Corrosion Protective Coatings, and Surface
Cracks ..................................................... 294
11.1.Introduction ............................................. 294
11.2.Background ............................................... 294
11.3.Instrumentation .......................................... 296
11.3.1.Scanning Acoustic Microscope (SAM) ................ 297
11.3.2.High Frequency Scanning Acoustic Microscopy
(HF-SAM) .......................................... 298
11.4.Methods .................................................. 299
11.4.1.Acoustic Imaging .................................. 299
11.4.2.Determination of Elastic Properties ............... 302
11.5.Applications ............................................. 304
11.5.1.Characterization of Corrosion ..................... 304
11.5.2.Characterization of Corrosion Protective
Coatings .......................................... 313
11.5.3.Microcrack Detection of Fatigued Material
Using HF SAM ...................................... 319
References .................................................... 322
12.Scanning Probe Microscopy: Ultrasonic Force and Scanning
Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy .............................. 323
12.1.Introduction ............................................. 323
12.2.Background and Instrumentation ........................... 323
12.3.Methods .................................................. 325
12.4.Application of the Methods ............................... 327
12.4.1.Imaging of Elastic Properties ..................... 327
12.4.2.Scanning Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy
and AFM Scratching for Studies of Corrosion ....... 340
References .................................................... 353
13.High Resolution Microellipsometry .......................... 356
13.1.Introduction ............................................. 356
13.2.Background ............................................... 356
13.3.Instrumentation .......................................... 358
13.3.1.Imaging Microellipsometer ......................... 358
13.3.2.Rotationally Symmetric Scanning
Microellipsometer ................................. 360
13.4.Applications ............................................. 363
13.4.1.Measurement of Resolved Features .................. 363
13.4.2.Measurement of Surface Features beyond
Diffraction Limit ................................. 366
13.4.3.Measurement of Axial Birefringence ................ 368
13.4.4.Measurement of Micro-Optical Components ........... 370
13.5.Future Trends ............................................ 371
References .................................................... 372
14 Positron Annihilation Spectroscopy (PAS) ................... 374
14.1.Introduction ............................................. 374
14.2.Background and Instrumentation ........................... 374
14.2.1.Basis of the Method ............................... 374
14.2.2.Positron Annihilation Lifetime Spectroscopy
(PALS) ............................................ 376
14.2.3.Doppler-Broadening of Annihilation Radiation
(DBAR) ............................................ 379
14.2.4.Slow Positron Beam Techniques ..................... 381
14.3.Interaction of Positrons with Lattice Defects and
Precipitates ............................................. 383
14.3.1.Change of the Annihilation Parameters Due
to Positron Trapping at Defects ................... 383
14.3.2.Kinetics of Positron Trapping ..................... 385
14.4.Applications ............................................. 389
14.4.1.Characterization of Plastic Deformation
of Stainless Steel ................................ 389
14.4.2.Characterization of Fatigue in Ti-6A1-4V .......... 392
14.4.3.Precipitation Phenomena in Aluminum Alloys ........ 395
14.4.4.Characterization of Polymers and Polymer
Composites ........................................ 399
14.4.5.Characterization of Polymer Coatings .............. 405
References .................................................... 409
Index ......................................................... 413
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