Preface ....................................................... XI
List of Contributors ........................................ XIII
1. Pollution Prevention and Treatment Using Nanotechnology ..... 1
Bernd Nowack
1.1. Introduction ........................................... 1
1.2. More Efficient Resource and Energy Consumption ......... 3
1.3. Pollution Detection and Sensing ........................ 4
1.4. Water Treatment ........................................ 4
1.4.1. Adsorption of Pollutants ........................ 4
1.4.2. Magnetic Nanoparticles .......................... 6
1.4.3. Nanofiltration .................................. 6
1.4.4. Degradation of Pollutants ....................... 6
1.4.5. Zerovalent Iron ................................. 7
1.5. Soil and Groundwater Remediation ....................... 9
1.6. Environmental Risks ................................... 10
1.6.1. Behavior in the Environment .................... 10
1.6.2. Ecotoxicology .................................. 11
1.7. Conclusions ........................................... 11
References ................................................. 12
2. Photocatalytic Surfaces: Antipollution and
Antimicrobial Effects ...................................... 17
Norman S.Allen, Michele Edge, Joanne Verran,
John Stratton, Julie Maltby, and Claire Bygott
2.1. Introduction to Photocatalysis: Titanium Dioxide
Chemistry and Structure-Activity ...................... 17
2.2. Applications .......................................... 26
2.3. Photocatalytic Chemistry .............................. 26
2.4. Photoactivity Tests for 2-Propanol Oxidation and
Hydroxyl Content ...................................... 31
2.5. Self-Cleaning Effects: Paints/Cementitious
Materials ............................................. 33
2.5.1. Antibacterial Effect ........................... 38
2.5.2. Depollution: NOx/VOC Removal ................... 42
2.6. Conclusions ........................................... 48
References ............................................ 49
3. Nanosized Photocatalysts in Environmental Remediation ...... 51
Jess P.Wilcoxon and Billie L.Abrams
3.1. Introduction .......................................... 51
3.1.1. Global Issues .................................. 51
3.1.2. Scope .......................................... 53
3.2. General Field of Environmental Remediation ............ 54
3.3. Photocatalysis ........................................ 57
3.3.1. History and Background ......................... 57
3.3.2. Definitions .................................... 58
3.3.3. Weil-Known Example - Water Splitting
Reaction ....................................... 59
3.4. Design Issues for Environmental Remediation
Photocatalysts ........................................ 60
3.4.1. Introduction ................................... 60
3.4.2. Charge Separation .............................. 61
3.4.3. pH of Solution ................................. 62
3.4.4. Charge Transfer ................................ 62
3.4.5. Presence of Simple and Complex Salts ........... 62
3.4.6. Effect of Surfactants .......................... 64
3.4.7. Effect of Solvent and Dissolved Oxygen ......... 65
3.4.8. Light Intensity ................................ 66
3.5. Potential for Nanomaterials in Environmental
Remediation ........................................... 66
3.5.1. Introduction ................................... 66
3.5.2. Nanomaterials and Advantages in
Photocatalysis ................................. 68
3.5.2.1. Semiconductor Nanoclusters ............ 68
3.5.2.2. Quantum Confinement ................... 68
3.5.2.3. Surface Chemistry ..................... 71
3.5.2.4. Other Unique Materials Properties ..... 71
3.5.2.5. Importance of Nanocluster
Photostability ........................ 72
3.6. Nanoparticle Synthesis and Characterization ........... 73
3.6.1. Introduction ................................... 73
3.6.2. Characterization ............................... 74
3.6.3. Detailed Examples of Nanocluster Synthesis
and Photocatalysis ............................. 77
3.6.3.1. Semiconductor Nanoclusters ............ 77
3.6.3.2. Ti02 .................................. 78
3.6.3.3. Alternative Photocatalytic
Materials ............................. 83
3.6.3.4. MoS2 and Other Metal Dichalcogenides 86
3.7. Current and Future Technological Applications of
Photocatalysts for Environmental Remediation ......... 112
3.7.1. Indoor Air Purification ....................... 113
3.7.2. Outdoor Air Purification ...................... 115
3.8. Conclusion ........................................... 117
References ................................................ 119
4. Pollution Treatment, Remediation and Sensing .............. 125
Abhilash Sugunan and Joydeep Dutta
4.1. Introduction ......................................... 125
4.2. Treatment Technologies to Remove Environmental
Pollutants ........................................... 127
4.3. Remediation Technologies to Clean Up
Environmental Pollutants Effectively ................. 131
4.4. Sensors .............................................. 133
4.4.4. Biosensors .................................... 134
4.4.2. Electrochemical Sensors ....................... 134
4.4.3. Mass Sensors .................................. 135
4.4.4. Optical Sensors ............................... 137
4.4.5. Gas Sensors ................................... 138
4.4.6. Novel Sensing Technologies and Devices for
Pollutant and Microbial Detection ............. 140
4.4.6.1. Real-Time Chemical Composition
Measurements of Fine and Ultrafine
Airborne Particles ................... 140
4.4.6.2. Ultrasensitive Detection of
Pathogens in Water ................... 140
4.4.6.3. Detection of Heavy Metals in Water ... 141
4.5. Conclusions .......................................... 143
References ........................................... 143
5. Benefits in Energy Budget ................................. 147
Ian Ivar Suni
5.1. Introduction ......................................... 147
5.2. Nanomaterials in Fuel Cells .......................... 148
5.2.1. Low-Temperature Fuel Cell Technology .......... 148
5.2.2. Nanoparticle Catalysts in Low-Temperature
Fuel Cells .................................... 150
5.2.3. Fuel Cell Catalyst Support Materials .......... 151
5.2.4. Carbon Nanotubes: Science and Technology ...... 152
5.2.5. Carbon Nanotubes within Operating PEMFCs ...... 153
5.3. Hydrogen Storage ..................................... 157
5.3.1. Hydrogen Storage Using Carbon Nanomaterials ... 158
5.4. Solar Cells .......................................... 159
5.4.1. Solar Energy Basics, Including Quantum
Confinement ................................... 159
5.4.2. Nanocrystalline Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells .... 161
5.4.3. Nanomaterials in Solar Cell Counter
Electrodes .................................... 164
5.5. Lithium Ion Battery Anode Materials .................. 165
5.5.1. Lithium Ion Batteries ......................... 165
5.5.2. Nanomaterials for Lithium Ion Storage:
Sn Nanoparticles .............................. 166
5.5.3. Nanomaterials for Lithium Ion Storage:
Si Nanocomposites ............................. 169
5.5.4. Nanomaterials for Lithium Ion Storage:
Carbon Nanotubes and Carbon Nanotube-Based
Composites .................................... 170
5.5.5. Lithium Ion Storage: Further Considerations ... 171
References ........................................... 172
6. An Industrial Ecology Perspective ......................... 177
Shannon M.Lloyd, Deanna N.Lekas, and Ketra
A.Schmitt
6.1. Introduction ......................................... 177
6.1.1. Industrial Ecology ............................ 177
6.1.2. Applying Industrial Ecology to
Nanotechnology ................................ 178
6.2. Life Cycle Assessment ................................ 179
6.2.1. Background on Life Cycle Assessment ........... 179
6.2.2. Life Cycle Implications for Nanotechnology .... 180
6.2.3. Life Cycle Studies Conducted to Date .......... 181
6.3. Substance Flow Analysis .............................. 184
6.3.1. Background on Substance Flow Analysis ......... 184
6.3.2. Substance Flow Analysis Implications for
Nanotechnology ................................ 185
6.3.3. Summary of Substance Flow Analysis Work
Conducted to Date ............................. 185
6.4. Corporate Social Responsibility ...................... 186
6.4.1. Background on Corporate Social
Responsibility ................................ 186
6.4.2. Corporate Social Responsibility
Implications for Nanotechnology ............... 187
6.4.3. Summary of Work Conducted to Understand
Nanofirm EHS Concerns and Actions ............. 188
6.5. Conclusions .......................................... 189
References ................................................ 190
7. Composition, Transformation and Effects of
Nanopartides in the Atmosphere ............................ 195
Ulrich Pöschl
7.1. Introduction ......................................... 195
7.2. Composition .......................................... 199
7.2.1. Carbonaceous Components ....................... 199
7.2.2. Primary and Secondary Organic Components ...... 202
7.3. Transformation ....................................... 205
7.3.1. Chemical Transformation of Carbonaceous
Aerosol Components ............................ 208
7.3.2. Restructuring, Phase Transitions,
Hygroscopic Growth and CCN/IN Activation
of Aerosol Particles upon Interaction with
Water Vapor ................................... 212
7.4. Climate and Health Effects ........................... 216
7.5. Summary and Outlook .................................. 219
References ................................................ 221
8. Measurement and Detection of Nanopartides Within
the Environment ........................................... 229
Thomas A.J.Kuhlbusch, Heinz Fissan, and Christof
Asbach
8.1. Introduction ......................................... 229
8.2. Occurrence of Nanopartides in Environmental Media .... 233
8.2.1. Ambient Environment ........................... 233
8.2.1.1. Water and Soils ...................... 233
8.2.1.2. Air .................................. 234
8.2.2. Workplace Environment ......................... 234
8.3. Nanoparticle Detection and Measurement Techniques .... 235
8.3.1. Soil .......................................... 235
8.3.2. Water and Liquids ............................. 235
8.3.2.1. Coulter Counter ...................... 235
8.3.2.2. Light Scattering ..................... 236
8.3.3. Air ........................................... 238
8.3.3.1. Basics ............................... 238
8.3.3.2. Online Physical Characterization ..... 243
8.3.3.3. Online Physical-Chemical
Characterization ..................... 256
8.3.3.4. Offline Physical Characterization .... 258
8.4. Nanoparticle Detection and Measurement Strategies .... 259
References ................................................ 262
9. Epidemiological Studies on Particulate Air Pollution ...... 267
Irene Brüske-Hohlfeld and Annette Peters
9.1. Introduction ......................................... 267
9.1.1. Outline of the Chapter ........................ 267
9.1.2. A Short Definition of Particle Sizes .......... 268
9.1.3. A Brief Comment on Epidemiological Study
Design ........................................ 269
9.2. Potential Entry Routes for Nanoparticles into the
Human Body ........................................... 270
9.2.1. Inhalation and Metabolism of Airborne
Particles ..................................... 270
9.3. Studies of Environmental Air Pollution in the USA
and Europe ........................................... 271
PM10 and PM2.5 .............................271
9.3.1. Short-Term Studies ............................ 272
9.3.1.1. Long-Term Studies .................... 272
9.3.1.2. Ultrafine Particles (UFP) ............ 273
9.3.2. Cardiovascular Disease ........................ 275
9.4. Respiratory Disease .................................. 276
9.5. Deterioration of Lung Function and Respiratory
Symptoms ............................................. 276
9.5.1. Asthma and Allergies .......................... 277
9.5.2. Lung Cancer ................................... 278
9.5.3. Diseases of the Central Nervous System ........ 279
9.6. Particulate Air Pollution at the Workplace ........... 281
9.7. References ........................................... 286
10.Impact of Nanotechnological Developments on the
Environment ............................................... 291
Harald F.Krug and Petra Klug
10.1.Problem .............................................. 291
10.2.Risk Management ...................................... 292
10.3.Sources of Nanoparticles: New Products ............... 294
10.4.Production and Use of Nanomaterials .................. 296
10.5.Workplace and the Environment: Effects and
Aspects of Nanomaterials ............................. 297
10.6.Distribution of Nanoparticles in Ambient Air ......... 298
10.7.Distribution of Nanoparticles in Water ............... 299
10.8.Conclusions .......................................... 302
References ................................................... 303
Index ........................................................ 307
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