INVITED PAPERS
Preface ...................................................... xiii
1. Introduction to Coal ......................................... 1
What is Coal? ................................................ 1
Origin of Coal ............................................... 1
Coalification ................................................ 2
Classification of Coal ....................................... 4
Basic Coal Analysis ....................................... 5
Rank of Coal .............................................. 6
Coal Type ................................................. 7
Grade of Coal ............................................. 8
Classification Systems .................................... 8
Coal Distribution and Resources ............................. 12
Coal Reserves in the World ............................... 13
Major Coal-Producing Regions in the World ................ 17
References .................................................. 26
2. Past, Present, and Future Role of Coal ...................... 29
The Use of Coal in the Pre-Industrial Revolution Era ........ 29
Early History of United States Coal Mining and Use ....... 31
The Use of Coal during the Industrial Revolution ............ 31
Post-Industrial Revolution Use of Coal ...................... 33
Overview of Energy in the United States ..................... 33
Coal Production in the United States ........................ 39
Synthetic Coal ........................................... 48
Coal Consumption in the United States ....................... 48
U.S. Coal Exports and Imports ............................... 50
World Primary Energy Production and Consumption ............. 51
World Primary Energy Production .......................... 54
World Primary Energy Consumption ......................... 58
Future Projections of Energy Use and Coal's
Contribution to the Energy Mix ........................... 61
World Energy Consumption of Oil .......................... 61
World Energy Consumption of Natural Gas .................. 63
World Energy Consumption of Coal ......................... 63
World Energy Consumption of Nuclear Energy ............... 69
World Energy Consumption of Renewable Energy ............. 69
Energy Outlook for the United States ..................... 70
Role of Coal in the United States' 2001 Energy Policy ....... 72
References .................................................. 75
3. The Effect of Coal Usage on Human Health and the
Environment ............................................. 77
Coal Mining ................................................. 78
Underground Mining ....................................... 79
Surface Mining ........................................... 86
Legislation/Reclamation .................................. 89
Coal Preparation ............................................ 90
Water Contamination from Preparation Plants .............. 92
Air Contamination from Preparation Plants ................ 92
Refuse Contaminants from Preparation Plants .............. 93
Health and Safety Issues ................................. 93
Coal Transportation ......................................... 95
Coal Combustion By-Products (CCB) ........................... 95
Emissions from Coal Combustion .............................. 97
Sulfur Oxides ............................................ 97
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) ................................... 100
Particulate Matter (PM) ................................. 103
Organic Compounds ....................................... 105
Carbon Monoxide ......................................... 106
Trace Elements .......................................... 107
Greenhouse Gases: Carbon Dioxide ........................ 114
References ................................................. 118
4. Coal-Fired Emissions and Legislative Action in the
United States .............................................. 123
Major Coal-Related Health Episodes ......................... 123
Pre-Industrial Revolution ............................... 124
Post-Industrial Revolution .............................. 124
History of Legislative Action for Coal-Fired Power
Plants ..................................................... 125
Pre-1970 Legislation .................................... 126
Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970 ........................ 128
Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 and Prevention of
Significant Deterioration ............................. 139
Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 ........................ 141
Additional NOx Regulations and Trading Programs ......... 149
New Source Review ....................................... 152
Impending Legislation and Pollutants under
Consideration for Regulation .......................... 155
Emissions Legislation in other Countries ................... 162
Sulfur Dioxide .......................................... 162
Nitrogen Oxides ......................................... 164
Particulate Matter ...................................... 169
Trace Elements/Mercury .................................. 170
Carbon Dioxide .......................................... 171
Air Quality and Coal-Fired Emissions ....................... 173
Six Principal Pollutants ................................ 175
Acid Rain ............................................... 184
Hazardous Air Pollutants ................................ 187
Carbon Dioxide (C02) ...................................... 189
References ................................................. 191
5. Technologies for Coal Utilization .......................... 195
Coal Combustion ............................................ 195
Brief History of Boilers and Coal Combustion Systems .... 196
Basic Steam Fundamentals and Their Application to
Boiler Development .................................... 204
Chemistry of Coal Combustion ............................ 207
Coal Combustion Systems ................................. 212
Influence of Coal Properties on Utility Boiler Design ... 229
Carbonization .............................................. 237
Brief History of Carbonization (High-Temperature) ....... 238
Coking Processes ........................................ 239
Coal Properties for Coke Production ..................... 241
Coking Conditions ....................................... 242
Low-Temperature Carbonization ........................... 243
Gasification ............................................... 246
Brief History of Coal Gasification ...................... 247
Principles of Coal Gasification ......................... 248
Gasifier Types .......................................... 249
Influence of Coal Properties on Gasification ............ 253
Regional Distribution of Gasification Systems ........... 255
Commercial Gasification Systems ......................... 256
Liquefaction ............................................... 267
The Beginning of the Synthetic Fuel Industry ............ 269
Indirect Liquefaction: Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis ........ 271
Direct Liquefaction ..................................... 273
References ................................................. 278
6. Emissions Control Strategies for Power Plants .............. 283
Currently Regulated Emissions .............................. 284
Sulfur Dioxide (S02) .................................... 284
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) ................................... 322
Particulate Matter ...................................... 347
Pollutants with Pending Compliance Regulation .............. 369
Mercury ................................................. 369
Potential Future Regulated Emissions ....................... 375
Carbon Dioxide .......................................... 376
Multipollutant Control ..................................... 382
ECO Process ............................................. 383
Airborne Process ........................................ 384
LoTOx Process ........................................... 384
Mobotec Systems ......................................... 385
Others .................................................. 385
References ................................................. 385
7. Future Power Generation (Near-Zero Emissions During
Electricity Generation) .................................... 393
Clean Coal Technology Demonstration Program ............. 395
Clean Coal Technology Program Evolution ................. 395
CCT Program Funding and Costs ........................... 396
CCT Program Projects .................................... 397
CCT Program Accomplishments ............................. 418
Power Plant Improvement Initiative (PPII) .................. 422
PPII Projects ........................................... 423
Benefits of the PPII .................................... 424
Clean Coal Power Initiative (CCPI) ......................... 424
Program Importance ...................................... 425
Round 1 CCPI Projects ................................... 427
CCPI Benefits ........................................... 431
Vision 21 .................................................. 432
Vision 21 Technologies .................................. 434
Vision 21 Benefits ...................................... 435
FutureGen .................................................. 435
Benefits of the DOE's Clean Coal Power
Program/Demonstrations .................................. 437
References ................................................. 439
8. Coal's Role in Providing United States Energy Security ..... 445
Overview of U.S. Energy Security Issues .................... 446
National Energy Plan and Coal Utilization .................. 448
Energy Conservation/Efficiency .......................... 449
Diversity of Fuel Sources ............................... 449
Environmental Protection ................................ 450
Technological Innovations ............................... 450
Global Alliances and Markets ............................ 450
The Role of Coal in the National Energy Plan ............ 450
Energy and the Economy ..................................... 451
Natural Gas Use in Power Generation ........................ 454
The Potential of Coal to Reduce U.S. Dependency on
Imported Crude Oil ...................................... 456
The Resurgence of Coal in Electric Power Generation ........ 458
Production of Hydrogen from Coal ........................... 459
The Role of Coal in Providing Security to the
U.S. Food Supply ........................................... 462
Coal's Role in International Energy Security and
Sustainable Development ................................. 464
Concluding Statements ...................................... 467
References ................................................. 468
Appendix A. Coal-Fired Emission Factors ....................... 473
Appendix B. Original List of Hazardous Air Pollutants ......... 499
Appendix C. Initial 263 Units Identified in Phase
I (SO2) of the Acid Rain Program .................. 505
Appendix D. Commercial Gasification Facilities Worldwide ...... 509
Index ......................................................... 513
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